“
“Faster, better, more” is the conventional benchmark used to define responses of memory T cells when compared with their naïve counterparts. In this issue of the European Journal of Immunology, Mark and Warren Shlomchik and colleagues [Eur. J. Immunol. 2011. 41: 2782–2792] make the intriguing observation that murine memory CD4+ T-cell populations enriched for alloreactive precursors

are fully capable of rejecting allogeneic skin grafts but yet are incapable of inducing significant ZD1839 in vitro graft-versus-host disease. These observations add to the emerging concept that memory CD4+ T-cell development is more nuanced and complex than predicted by conventional models. In particular, the data suggest that it may

be just as important to consider what naïve or effector cells have “lost” in their transition see more to memory. Memory T cells with reactivity against alloantigens are generally considered to constitute a major barrier to successful solid organ transplantation 1. Alloreactive memory CD4+ T-cell populations rapidly generate secondary effectors or provide help to B cells to promote the generation of alloantigen-specific antibody. These memory cells are resistant to both tolerance induction through costimulatory blockade 2 or immunosuppression by regulatory T cells 3. It might be expected therefore that transfer of such memory CD4+ T-cell populations to allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) recipients would lead to severe graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). The fact that GVHD does not occur when such experiments are performed, as reported in this issue of the European Journal of Immunology by Mark and Warren Protein tyrosine phosphatase Shlomchik and colleagues 4, suggests an unexpected level of heterogeneity and complexity

in the functions of memory CD4+ T cells. Transfer of donor T cells into recipients during allogeneic experimental BMT induces GVHD in a highly predictable manner 5. The allogeneic T-cell response occurs in the context of host injury induced by the conditioning treatments required prior to BMT, leading to severe inflammation and the rapid accumulation of T-cell effectors in peripheral tissue such as the gut, skin, and liver. Damage to the thymus 6 and the stroma of secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs) and BM 7 leads to a state of profound immunodeficiency, increasing the risk of infection. There has therefore been a strong clinical interest in developing strategies that permit effective immune reconstitution following BMT without induction of GVHD. This provided the incentive for a number of groups to explore the role of individual T-cell subsets in conferring GVHD.

4). We compared the performance of gene sets with their constituent genes in profiles from high versus low HAI responders to influenza vaccination. We found that the top-scoring gene sets in TIV responders were more strongly correlated with the high antibody response phenotype than any constituent Z-VAD-FMK cost gene in either gene set (Supporting Information Fig. 5A). Moreover,

although both complement and antibody genes were present in gene sets enriching in responders, the antibody genes were among those most upregulated (Supporting Information Fig. 5A and B). Thus a gene set based analytic approach identifies signatures of proliferation and immunoglobulin genes that are strongly correlated Temozolomide manufacturer with high antibody response. We next sought

to determine if enrichment of the immunoglobulin and/or proliferation gene sets could be used as a predictor of vaccine response, using high or low HAI titers as an outcome. To do this, we selected the most differentially enriched gene set from each of the two clusters, and fitted them into logistic regression models. Both models closely fit the data and yielded an AUC of ∼0.9 (Fig. 3A and B), suggesting that each independent gene set could provide a strongly predictive model of vaccine response. To integrate both biological processes into a single model, we applied Bayes’ rule, and found that the integrated model achieved an AUC of 0.94 (Fig. 3C). To compare our integrated gene set based model with the single-gene level model previously described for this dataset [16], we tested our model in a validation dataset comprised of PBMC samples Hydroxychloroquine order from an independent trial of TIV vaccination. We found that our predictive model yielded an accuracy of 88% in the test set, comparable

to the performance of the single-gene level predictor [16]. This indicates that gene set based analysis of expression profiles provide accurate predictors of response to vaccination. An advantage of a gene set enrichment analysis is that it can capture subtle changes in gene expression distributed across transcriptional networks. We therefore compared the degree of differential expression of genes in the predictive gene sets (proliferation and immunoglobulin gene sets) with that of the genes selected in the single-gene level predictor originally applied to this dataset (Fig. 4). Predictive genes selected in the study by Nakaya et al. [16] were all highly differentially expressed in day seven PBMC expression profiles from responders compared to nonresponders, as expected (mean fold change 3.36). In contrast, the gene sets identified in our analysis included many genes that were much less differentially expressed (mean fold change of proliferation cluster 2.13; mean fold change of immunoglobulin cluster 2.53) (Fig. 4).

Chromosome conformation capture experiments suggest the production of unique chromosomal loops in peripheral B cells anchored by Eμ and 3′RR physical interactions 19, 20. In the case of CSR, recruitment click here and transcription of the switch-acceptor region in close proximity to the switch μ donor region (switch–switch synapsis) might be promoted by the 3′RR itself 19. Combined mutations of both the Eμ and 3′RR would be the most appropriate tool to address this issue. Ongoing recombination and mutation during B-cell development make the IgH locus a hotspot for translocation. Many lymphomas are marked by proto-oncogene translocation into the IgH locus (Fig. 2A). Bcl-2 and cyclin

D1 translocations, found respectively in follicular and mantle cell lymphoma, take place during the V(D)J recombination 21, 22. The cyclin D1, cyclin D3 or c-maf translocations often observed in myelomas are obviously linked to CSR 23. However c-myc translocation, a typical hallmark of Burkitt lymphoma, Doxorubicin datasheet is related to either SHM or CSR 24. Among IgH cis-regulatory elements, Eμ was expected to be the critical c-myc deregulator in lymphomagenesis. However, Eμ-c-myc transgenic mice expressed c-myc in B-cell

progenitors and, thus, developed an immature form of lymphoma 25 that differed from human Burkitt lymphoma tumors that harbor a mature B-cell signature 24. In Burkitt lymphoma, c-myc translocation

breakpoints occur either in the V(D)J (endemic Burkitt lymphoma) or in switch regions (sporadic Burkitt lymphoma), both of which keep the 3′RR intact. Thus, transgenic models confirm that the 3′RR is a good candidate for oncogene deregulation (Fig. 2B). c-myc-3′RR transgenics developed Burkitt lymphoma-like Reverse transcriptase proliferation within a few months 26 and similarly, the knock-in of a 3′RR cassette upstream of the endogenous c-myc gene induced B-cell lymphomas 27. Interestingly, the phenotype of lymphoproliferation induced by the c-myc-3′RR transgene varied with the genetic background. C57Bl/6 animals developed Burkitt-like lymphoma 26, while no lymphoproliferation occurred when the c-myc-3′RR transgene was bred in a Balb/c background (known to harbor a polymorphism of p16Ink4a) 28. p16Ink4a is an inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)-4, a regulatory protein implicated in the first steps of cell cycle entry. Breeding c-myc-3′RR C57Bl/6 animals in a Cdk4R24C mutant background (a dominant Cdk4 oncogene resistant to inhibition by p16Ink4a and other members of the Ink family 29) resulted in susceptibility to mantle cell lymphoma (Vincent-Fabert et al., submitted). A convincing demonstration of the essential contribution of the 3′RR in lymphomagenesis has been produced by transgenic models of B-cell lymphomas with IgH-c-myc translocations 30.

It has been shown that IL-4 can stimulate keratinocyte proliferation (72), that epidermal cells have IL-4 receptors, and IL-4R GDC-0068 nmr expression is elevated in psoriasis (73). Microarray analysis of two PBMC samples obtained from a recurrent crusted scabies patient (one obtained when the patient had severe disease and the other after treatment and apparent cure) revealed significant upregulation of amphiregulin and epiregulin at the time of severe disease (Walton S.F. and Currie B.J., unpublished data). Both proteins are members of the epidermal growth factor family and are associated with growth of normal epithelial cells. Over expression has also been

associated with a psoriasis-like skin phenotype (74,75). Recent results have identified patients with both crusted scabies and ordinary scabies to have strong PBMC proliferative responses to multiple S. scabiei homologues to HDM allergens (Walton S.F., unpublished data). Studies show for the first time that clinical phenotype, i.e. ordinary vs. crusted scabies, is associated with differences in the type and magnitude of the immune response to S. scabiei proteins. Quantitative analysis of cytokine levels showed the IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio was significantly selleck compound higher in supernatant from S. scabiei stimulated PBMC from patients with ordinary scabies compared to patients

with crusted scabies, and increased levels of IL-5 and IL-13 were observed in stimulated PBMC from crusted scabies compared to patients Oxymatrine with ordinary scabies. These latter results support the hypothesis of nonprotective Th2 activity in patients with crusted scabies, leading in part to the documented high levels of total and specific IgE observed and the growth and development of mast cells. This has been detected

in similar studies of HDM allergy, particularly with the immunodominant allergens Der p 1 and Der f 1 (76). Additionally, scabies mites have been reported to secrete unknown antigens that stimulate the proliferation of T-regulatory cells and their secretion of IL-10, which would inhibit the inflammatory and immune responses in humans to the mites (77). Tissue and blood feeding parasites face significant threats to their early survival caused by host innate immune responses. Scabies mites feed on epidermal protein and host plasma and thus are also exposed to host defence mechanisms both internally and externally. Complement has been shown to be an important component in host defence against blood feeding ticks, as for many other pathogens (78,79). Serine proteases from the cattle parasite Hypoderma lineatum and laval secretory/excretory products (predominantly chymotrypsin) from the sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina are able to deplete activity of both alternative and classical complement pathways of the host via C3 degradation (80,81).

The disease is usually characterized by mild lesions that self-heal within 4–10 months although with tell-tail scarring (referred to as healed individuals), but in some cases, lesions can remain active for more Ferroptosis inhibitor clinical trial than 2 years (referred to as nonhealing individuals) (2). Leishmania can interact and infect a number of different cell types, with monocytes/macrophages being the most important. However, in the very earliest phase of infection, neutrophils are believed to serve as an intermediate host cell (3,4). The parasite has, furthermore, been suggested to use apoptotic neutrophils

as a ‘Trojan horse’ to enter macrophage as its final host (4). This initial interaction between neutrophil and parasite is likely to impact the outcome of infection. Better understanding regarding how neutrophils can be influenced by parasite or parasite products may, thus, aid in developing new tools to control leishmaniasis. The role of neutrophils has been investigated in mouse models of both visceral (VL) and CL, but there are few reports on their role in human disease (5). Both human and mouse studies have shown that neutrophils produce a number of cytokines after infection with L. major both in vitro and in vivo (3,4,6) including, TNF-α, TGF-β and IL-8, important in initiating an immune response. In vitro studies showed that co-incubation of human neutrophils with L. major Saracatinib in vitro induces IL-8 secretion

(3). Because neutrophils are also the primary target cell of IL-8, the Leishmania-induced production of IL-8 accelerates the recruitment of other neutrophils to the site of infection and facilitates uptake of the parasite

(7). The role of neutrophils mediated by TGF-β secretion in L. major infections is currently being investigated. Studies on murine models of leishmaniasis have shown that TGF-β secreted by neutrophils counteracts IL-12-mediated effects on T helper cell (Th) differentiation (8,9). Less virulent disease associated with the development of a Th1 pattern occurs in animals treated with a monoclonal antibody (mAb) against TGF-β, while more virulent disease occurs in animals given TGF-β (10). In addition, in vitro experiments indicated Dipeptidyl peptidase that induction of TGF-β production by human neutrophils results in the persistence of intracellular parasite whereas release of TNF-α contributes to elimination of intracellular parasite by neutrophils (6). Furthermore, cutaneous lesions caused by Leishmania braziliensis infection mostly heal rapidly, but the uncontrolled gelatinase activity may result in intense tissue degradation and poorly healing wounds. There is an association between gelatinase activity and increased numbers of cells making IFN-γ, IL-10 and TGF-β in lesions from poor responders. This study concluded that the immune response profile may be ultimately influence the persistence or cure of CL lesions activity (11).

g. pathogenic) changes. Therefore, in addition to mitochondrial DNA, Y-chromosome, microsatellites, single nucleotide polymorphisms and other markers, immunogenetic polymorphisms represent

essential buy JNK inhibitor and complementary tools for anthropological studies. More than a century has elapsed since the discovery of the ABO blood groups in 1900 by Karl Landsteiner through haemagglutination assays, (see ref. 1 for a review) an event that marked the starting point of immunogenetic studies applied to the analysis of genetic variation in humans. Other antigens of the red blood cells (together with allozymes, through electrophoretic techniques) were successively found and studied in human populations during the first half of the 20th century.2 Molecules that are instrumental in the immune responses of human beings also revealed inter-individual differences such as immunoglobulins, with the discovery of allotypic variation,3,4 and human leucocyte antigen (HLA) molecules,5 with the finding of an unexpectedly high degree of polymorphism at the level of their peptide-binding region (see http://www.ebi.ac.uk/imgt/hla/). Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) were also shown to exhibit a complex polymorphism where both the number of alleles and

selleck chemicals llc the number of genes may vary among individuals.6 Today, almost 350 severe pathogens are registered on a worldwide scale (Gideon online. Retrieved from http://www.gideononline.com on 20 December 2010) and many others have existed and are now extinct. Each year, seasonal epidemics of influenza remind us that the turnover of most viruses is very rapid. A high level of polymorphism in the genes coding for molecules involved Selleck Lonafarnib in immune responses is therefore not surprising in light of our exposure to such a diversity of infectious agents, because we know that evolution may easily adapt the genetic pool of populations to specific environmental

pressures through natural selection. For example, red blood cell antigens were found to act as receptors for a number of pathogens, (e.g. Plasmodium vivax, for FY, Plasmodium falciparum, for GPA, Toxoplasma gondii, for RH), and hence to play an important role in the susceptibility or resistance of our organism against specific diseases. In the case of FY, the null allele was positively selected in some geographic regions, but not in others, allowing red blood cells to escape P. vivax infection.7 Also, HLA allelic variation may have been maintained through heterozygote advantage, because we know that some HLA alleles are associated with resistance to several fatal diseases, one recent example being the association of HLA-B*27, HLA-B*51 and HLA-B*57 with improved prognosis of AIDS.

In vitro experiments support the hypothesis that the Selleck Enzalutamide maximum influx of sCD14 might be around that time, because Landmann et al. have also shown a significant increase in sCD14 production in cell cultures 44 h after stimulation with LPS [44]. As expected, sCD14 concentrations differed markedly interindividually. While some subjects reacted with a large increase in sCD14 into the bronchoalveolar space at 18 and 42 h after allergen challenge, others had only minor increases. Whether this is owing to interindividual CD14 polymorphisms that have been shown to influence serum levels [45] or whether this merely reflects interindividual variability remains unclear. There was no correlation between sCD14 concentrations

and lung function or the type or dose of allergen used for challenge. Similarly, no correlation was found regarding sCD14 levels in BAL and IgE levels in blood (data not shown) as has been demonstrated by others [46]. sCD14 levels in BAL and in PBMC-CD14+ cultures learn more were lower than sCD14 measured in peripheral blood. This

could be because of a methodical influence of the BAL procedure where 100 ml of normal saline are used which dilute bronchoalveolar lining fluids, and the measured concentrations of sCD14 might therefore also be diluted. SCD14 levels in peripheral blood were in the range of sCD14 measured in other studies [47] but tended to be higher than those measured in cord and peripheral blood from allergic and non-allergic asthmatic children [30, 48]. Lundell et al. also found a trend for lower sCD14 levels in peripheral blood of children developing

allergies compared to healthy controls [48]. In our study, we also observed a slight trend towards lower sCD14 levels in allergic subjects compared to non-allergic controls (Figs. 2–4) but this did not reach statistical significance. The predominant isoform of sCD14 in BALF is the 49-kDa isoform, isometheptene which is produced intracellularly in mononuclear cells and secreted [28]. Therefore, sCD14 is produced locally in the bronchi. Recently, sCD14 has been discussed as an acute-phase protein, and sCD14 levels were correlated to CRP levels in patients with bacterial and non-bacterial inflammation [49]. Also, it is known that CRP and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein are elevated in peripheral blood serum after allergen challenge [28]. Therefore, it could be speculated that endobronchial sCD14 is also a parameter for asthmatic inflammation. To elucidate potential mechanisms that might contribute to sCD14 increase in allergic asthma, PBMC-CD14+ cultures were stimulated with LPS, LPS + LTD4, LTD4 and IL-17. IL-17 is a cytokine that mediates the LPS-induced accumulation of neutrophils in the respiratory tract [39], and incubation of PBMC-CD14+ cultures with IL-17 results in an increase in IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 and TNF-α production [50]. In our study, stimulation with IL-17 in vitro, however, had no effect on sCD14 levels in PBMC-CD14+ cultures.

Western blot analysis of whole cell lysates demonstrated absence of RAG-1 protein in freshly isolated B cells and presence of a 119 000 molecular weight protein

band corresponding to RAG-1 in protein lysates from thymus and B cells stimulated with CpGPTO for 24 or 48 hr (Fig. 2b). Paralleling IL-6 production simultaneous engagement of TLR9 and CD40 enhanced RAG-1 protein expression (Fig. 2b), which was corroborated by flow cytometric analysis (Fig. 2c). Well in line with the results obtained by RT-PCR the flow cytometric analysis further revealed that stimulation with CD40L (Fig. 2c), IL-4 or combined CD40L/IL-4 (data not shown) also induced slight increases in the mean fluorescence intensity corresponding to RAG-1. However, these increases never reached statistical significance when INCB018424 price compared with background levels in unstimulated B cells. Notably, RAG-1 protein expression was not detected after Smad inhibitor BCR stimulation with anti-immunoglobulin, but was observed under combined stimulation with CD40L/IL-4 (Fig. 2d), a stimulatory condition leading to IL-6 induction. Activity of RAG is bound to its localization within the nucleus so we analysed the subcellular distribution of TLR9-induced RAG-1 in peripheral blood B cells. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that RAG-1

expression was nearly absent in CD40L/rhIL-4-stimulated conditions (Fig. 2e, upper panel), but detectable in CpGPTO-stimulated B cells (Fig. 2e, middle panel) and most pronounced in CpGPTO+CD40L (±anti-immunoglobulin) -stimulated B cells (Fig. 2e, lower panel). Remarkably, prominent nuclear staining for RAG-1 was found in B-cell blasts (Fig. 2e, white arrows). The RAG heterodimer initiates genomic rearrangement, but a multitude of enzymes are subsequently required to accomplish this process. These executing enzymes were detectable

on mRNA level in both unstimulated and stimulated human peripheral blood B cells, indicating their possible involvement in RAG-dependent rearrangement processes (Fig. 3). However, despite the intriguing implications of differential why regulation with regard to receptor revision, the changes in mRNA expression levels upon stimulation were not significant. Notably, the overall highest basal mRNA expression levels (≥ 10−2) were measured for Ku70, artemis and polμ, a polymerase recently suggested to selectively catalyse rearrangement processes at the LC (light chain) junction.[21] As these enzymes belong to the non-homologous end joining repair complex (NHEJ) that mediates post-replicative DNA repair, we reasoned that their expression could be stabilized by the proliferative response elicited by CpGPTO and proliferation may, in turn, represent a facilitating factor for receptor revision. Western blot analysis revealed the presence of Ku70/80 protein in B cells stimulated with CpG ODN ± CD40L (Fig. 4a).

We studied the impact of the recruitment of NKG2D by its ligands ULBP1 and ULBP2 on the triggering of biological responses by Vγ9Vδ2 T cells (cytokine production and release of cytolytic granules). After testing grading doses of ULBP proteins, we concluded that the concentration of 1 μg/mL of ULBP proteins would be used in all experiments of the study (Supporting Information data 1). In the presence of ULBP1 or ULBP2, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells produce IFN-γ (Fig. 1B, left panel), TNF-α

(Fig. 1B, middle panel), and release JNK inhibitor chemical structure cytolytic granules (Fig. 1B, right panel), which is not the case in the presence of UL16. The cytokine production and the release of lytic granules are impaired when cells are pre-incubated with a blocking anti-NKG2D mAb (M585) meaning that the interaction between ULBP1 and ULBP2 with NKG2D www.selleckchem.com/products/pci-32765.html leads to the biological responses of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. In human NK cells, NKG2D-triggered biological responses are dependent on PI3K pathways 31. In order to know if PI3K pathways are also involved in the downstream NKG2D recruitment in Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, we analyzed both the effects of two PI3K pharmacological inhibitors (LY-294002 and wortmannin) and the phosphorylation state of PKB, a PI3K kinase substrate. PI3K inhibitor treatments were performed following the protocol already described in 24, 32. Both LY-294002 (Fig. 1B) and wortmannin (Supporting Information data 2) inhibit cytokine production

and the release of lytic granules. Moreover, PKB phosphorylation is observed after NKG2D recruitment by ULBP1 and ULBP2 (Supporting Information data 3). Altogether, these results indicate that the biological responses of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells directly triggered upon NKG2D activation are dependent on PI3K pathways. Moreover, the other mechanisms Idelalisib mouse underlying NKG2D stimulation in Vγ9Vδ2 T cells were further studied through the analysis

of the effects of the pharmacological inhibitors PD 98059 and SB 203580, two pharmalogical inhibitors of ERK-2 and p38 MAP kinases, respectively. Both PD 98059 and SB 203580 treatments inhibit cytokine production and the release of lytic granules triggered through NKG2D recruitment (Supporting Information data 2). This suggests that these two pathways are also recruited after NKG2D activation in Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. The above results suggest that NKG2D recruitment by its ligands is sufficient to trigger biological functions in Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, as it is the case for NK cells. Nevertheless, several reports indicated that NKG2D could also act as a costimulatory receptor for the TCR-dependent activation of human cytotoxic T cells 33. In this regard, we studied the impact of TCR/NKG2D costimulation on both cytokine production and lytic granule release by Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. As an optimal concentration of physiological phosphoantigen (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl-pyrophosphate (HMB-PP) (0.5 nM) triggers strong biological responses (Fig.

The Antibody-Dependent NVP-BKM120 nmr Cellular Cytotoxicity study collaboration group includes physician and nurses who helped to recruit subjects for the study: T. Read, M. Chen, C. Fairley, T. Schmidt, C. Bradshaw, R. Moore, K. Fethers, J. Silvers and H. Kent from the Melbourne Sexual Health Centre; R. McFarlane, D. Baker, M. McMurchie, East Sydney Doctors; S. Pett, A. Carr, St Vincent’s Hospital Sydney; R. Finlayson, Taylor Square Clinic; Don Smith, Albion St Centre; T.M. Soo, Interchange General Practice Canberra; M. Kelly, J. Patten, AIDS Medical Centre Brisbane; B.

Anderson, St Leonard’s Medical Centre; S. Marlton, Port Kembla Sexual Health Clinic; D. Smith, Lismore Sexual Health; M. Bloch, Holdsworth House General Practice; N. Doong, Dr Doong’s Surgery; N. Roth, Prahran Market Clinic and A. Shaik for the curation of the database. We Dorsomorphin clinical trial are grateful to all the individuals who participated in the study for their assistance. This work was

financially supported by NHMRC awards 510448 and 455350, ARC award LP0991498, the Australian Centre for HIV and Hepatitis Virology Research, The Royal Australasian College of Physicians, The Ramaciotti Foundation, and National Institutes of Health award R21AI081541. The authors declare no competing interests. L.W., A.C., G.I., M.P. and M.N. performed ADCC assays; J.A. analysed data, L.W., I.S. and S.K. conceived the study and wrote the manuscript; D.C., A.K., I.S. and ADCC study collaboration recruited subjects and provided samples. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. “
“Suppressor T cells” were historically defined within the CD8+ T-cell compartment and recent studies

have highlighted several naturally occurring CD8+Foxp3− Treg populations. However, the relevance of CD8+Foxp3+ T cells, which represent a minor population in both thymi and secondary lymphoid organs of nonmanipulated mice, Vasopressin Receptor remains unclear. We here demonstrate that de novo Foxp3 induction in peripheral CD8+Foxp3− T cells is counter-regulated by DC-mediated co-stimulation via CD80/CD86. CD8+Foxp3+ T cells fail to develop in TCR-transgenic mice with Rag1−/− background, similar to classical CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs. Notably, both naturally occurring and induced CD8+Foxp3+ T cells express bona fide Treg markers including CD25, GITR, CTLA4 and CD103, and show defective IFN-γ production upon restimulation when compared with their CD8+Foxp3− counterparts. However, utilizing DEREG transgenic mice for the isolation of Foxp3+ cells by eGFP reporter expression, we demonstrate that induced CD8+Foxp3+ T cells similar to activated CD8+Foxp3− T cells only mildly suppress T-cell proliferation and IFN-γ production. We therefore categorize CD8+Foxp3+ T cells as a tightly controlled population sharing certain developmental and phenotypic properties with classical CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs, but lacking potent suppressive activity.