g. pathogenic) changes. Therefore, in addition to mitochondrial DNA, Y-chromosome, microsatellites, single nucleotide polymorphisms and other markers, immunogenetic polymorphisms represent

essential buy JNK inhibitor and complementary tools for anthropological studies. More than a century has elapsed since the discovery of the ABO blood groups in 1900 by Karl Landsteiner through haemagglutination assays, (see ref. 1 for a review) an event that marked the starting point of immunogenetic studies applied to the analysis of genetic variation in humans. Other antigens of the red blood cells (together with allozymes, through electrophoretic techniques) were successively found and studied in human populations during the first half of the 20th century.2 Molecules that are instrumental in the immune responses of human beings also revealed inter-individual differences such as immunoglobulins, with the discovery of allotypic variation,3,4 and human leucocyte antigen (HLA) molecules,5 with the finding of an unexpectedly high degree of polymorphism at the level of their peptide-binding region (see http://www.ebi.ac.uk/imgt/hla/). Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) were also shown to exhibit a complex polymorphism where both the number of alleles and

selleck chemicals llc the number of genes may vary among individuals.6 Today, almost 350 severe pathogens are registered on a worldwide scale (Gideon online. Retrieved from http://www.gideononline.com on 20 December 2010) and many others have existed and are now extinct. Each year, seasonal epidemics of influenza remind us that the turnover of most viruses is very rapid. A high level of polymorphism in the genes coding for molecules involved Selleck Lonafarnib in immune responses is therefore not surprising in light of our exposure to such a diversity of infectious agents, because we know that evolution may easily adapt the genetic pool of populations to specific environmental

pressures through natural selection. For example, red blood cell antigens were found to act as receptors for a number of pathogens, (e.g. Plasmodium vivax, for FY, Plasmodium falciparum, for GPA, Toxoplasma gondii, for RH), and hence to play an important role in the susceptibility or resistance of our organism against specific diseases. In the case of FY, the null allele was positively selected in some geographic regions, but not in others, allowing red blood cells to escape P. vivax infection.7 Also, HLA allelic variation may have been maintained through heterozygote advantage, because we know that some HLA alleles are associated with resistance to several fatal diseases, one recent example being the association of HLA-B*27, HLA-B*51 and HLA-B*57 with improved prognosis of AIDS.