The information on the differential

distribution of these DNA sequences in the 15 serotypes of A. pleuropneumoniae may contribute to future research on the pathogenic mechanisms of different serotypes, typing-based diagnosis methods, and multivalent vaccines. Porcine contagious pleuropneumonia, which is caused by Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, is an extremely contagious and often fatal respiratory disease (Macinnes & Rosendal, 1988). This disease occurs in the countries that have a swine industry, and it is responsible for enormous economic losses to the swine industry. To date, 15 serotypes of A. pleuropneumoniae have been described (Blackall et al., 2002). These serotypes show significant differences

in pathogenicity and immunogenicity (Cruijsen et al., 1995; Jacobsen et al., 1996). Therefore, vaccines raised Selleck Ku-0059436 against a specific serotype do not confer protection from infection by other serotypes (Ramjeet et al., 2008). Owing to the limited information on the genetic differences among the serotypes, studies on the immunity mechanisms of different serotypes, typing-based diagnosis, and multivalent genetically engineered vaccines have been significantly hampered. Therefore, the genomic differences among the principal serotypes should be identified and suitably exploited. Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae serotypes 1 and 3 show the most BIBF 1120 mouse significant variation in either pathogenicity (Jacobsen et al., 1996). Serotype 1 is highly virulent, and infection of this serotype is associated with epidemic outbreak, high mortality, and serious lung lesions. However, serotype 3 is considered to be less virulent (Bosse et al., 2002).

Moreover, there are significant differences between the immunogenicities of the two serotypes, and the available vaccines for the two serotypes do not provide cross-protection (Cruijsen et al., 1995; Ramjeet et al., 2008). In this study, we identified the genomic differences between A. pleuropneumoniae serotypes 1 and 3 by performing representational difference analysis (RDA). This technique has been widely used to analyze genetic differences in bacteria (Lisitsyn & Wigler, 1993; Tinsley & Nassif, 1996), especially in the light of the limited availability of complete genome-sequence data and microarrays (Barcellos et al., 2009; Sack & Baltes, 2009). We identified the distribution of all the identified differential DNA sequences between the 15 serotypes of A. pleuropneumoniae. Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae strains used for this study are listed in Table 1.

Five themes, set out below, were identified as being critical to moving forward and to which HIV in Europe could make specific contributions. The conference witnessed a sometimes heated debate on the role counselling should play in HIV testing, with some arguing that pre-test counselling should be de-emphasized in health care settings as routine

testing becomes more widespread, and others maintaining that both pre- and post-test counselling is critical to the success of HIV testing. In recent BTK inhibitor nmr years, authoritative guidelines have been developed, by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the British HIV Association, ECDC and WHO [8-12], to promote and normalize HIV testing, including through the routine offering of HIV testing in a wider range of health care settings, and to patients with conditions indicative of a higher risk of HIV infection. Emphasizing that HIV testing should continue to be voluntary and undertaken only when the patient is aware that testing is taking place, guidelines regarding HIV testing selleck chemicals llc in health care settings make further recommendations

to reduce potential barriers to HIV testing and make testing easier for both patients and health service providers. These guidelines seek to eltoprazine address and reduce perceived barriers related to HIV testing from both the patient and provider perspectives, including pre-test counselling, the need

for written consent, the timely delivery of results and the need to provide risk reduction counselling. All guidelines emphasize that expanded testing should include prompt access to post-test counselling and link to HIV care for persons newly diagnosed with HIV infection. An important aspect of the proposed normalization of HIV testing is that extensive counselling prior to HIV testing (i.e. pre-test counselling, including an in-depth discussion of the individual’s behaviours, risks and prevention) should not be required, nor should (separate) written consent. To ensure quality of care and address potential barriers to HIV testing, some guidelines recommend shorter pre-test discussions. To further facilitate HIV testing in a range of health care settings, post-test counselling, in particular risk reduction counselling for people who test HIV negative, has also come under scrutiny.