When the brain structure of interest is clearly displayed, the image should be fixed and zoomed in two- to three-fold for further measurements [11]. The examination is performed at axial scanning planes through the midbrain and the thalami [11] and [12]. The mesencephalic brainstem can be depicted as a butterfly shaped structure of low echogenicity surrounded by the highly echogenic basal cisterns. The echogenicity of the ipsilateral SN, red nucleus (RN) and the BR could be evaluated (Fig. 1). The BR is usually seen as a highly echogenic continuous line with an echogenicity that find more is identical to that of the RN [13]. Echogenicity of BR is rated semiquantitatively, using either a 3-point (grade

1: raphe invisible; grade 2: slightly echogenic or interrupted BR; grade 3: high echogenicity

identical to that of RN or basal cisterns) or, preferably, a 2-point (grade 0: invisible, hypoechogenic or interrupted BR; grade 1: highly echogenic BR as Afatinib chemical structure a continuous line) grading system [13]. It is important to scan the subject investigated from both sides, as the bone window may vary allowing sufficient visualization of the BR only if both sides are considered. Therefore, if the BR can be depicted as continuous line from one side, it is rated as a normal (grade 1) – that is, hyperechogenic, non-interrupted continuous line. Changes in raphe echogenicity reflect changes in tissue impedance and point towards an alteration of the brainstem microarchitecture which could be due to a shift in tissue cell density, a change in interstitial matrix composition, or an alteration of fiber tract integrity [5] and [14]. Various anatomical, physiological, and biochemical findings underline the importance of the basal

limbic system in the pathogenesis of affective disorders, and compelling evidence suggests that the nuclei, fiber tracts, and neurotransmitter systems associated with the basal limbic system are involved in the pathogenesis of primary depression and depression associated with some neurodegenerative diseases such as PD [15] and [16]. The change of acoustic impedance, which is recorded by TCS as reduced AZD9291 BR echogenicity, might be the result of microstructual changes, gliosis and disruption of fiber tract integrity [14]. Numerous evidence from neuroimaging, biochemical and animal studies implicates basal limbic system and raphe nuclei involvement in the pathogenesis of the mood disorders, particularly depression. Typical ultrasound marker that can be of value in the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of depression is the low echogenicity or interrupted BR. Raphe hypoechogenicity is a common finding in 50–70% of patients with unipolar depression [2] and [17] and is associated with responsivity to serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) [18]. In a pioneer study, echogenicity of the BR was examined by TCS in 20 patients with unipolar depression and 20 healthy adult controls.

3. For a quantitative study of slow motions by means of R1ρ, one has to sample the spectral density functions J(ω) at rather low frequencies. In the case of R1ρ experiments under MAS, the lowest sampling frequency is determined by the difference |ω1 − ωR|. Because of the hardware limitations for selleck products the upper ω1 value, one may easily adjust this difference to any desirable value only if the MAS frequency is not higher than 25–30 kHz. ω1 can be increased by using resonance offset of the spin-lock frequency [18]. In this

case, however, the relaxation becomes slower, which requires longer spin-lock pulses and practically this is not always feasible. At high MAS frequencies (>50 kHz) one cannot obtain low values of the difference |ω1 − ωR| and hence, effectively study slow motions. Thus, the moderate (10–30 kHz) MAS frequencies seem to be an optimal compromise between the spectral resolution (which for deuterated proteins is rather decent), and possibility to adjust spin-lock and MAS frequencies close to each other, if one aims at studying slow motions using R1ρ measurements. We have demonstrated that rotating-frame relaxation rates (R1ρ) measured in deuterated and partially proton back-exchanged proteins can be used for a quantitative analysis

of slow μs–ms conformational PD-0332991 clinical trial dynamics of proteins at all MAS rates. In the chosen example of the SH3 domain, an analysis Ureohydrolase of the integrated signal intensity reveals that slow dynamics is rather abundant in this small protein, and occurs mainly in residues that are not resolved in 2D spectra, i.e., too broad to be detected. Clearly, site-specific

dynamic information is much more valuable than the integral characterisation of protein motions. The prerequisite for the former is a high spectral resolution which is achievable only at (relatively) fast MAS. At the same time, one should be aware that the analysis of only well resolved sharp peaks in 2D spectrum in some cases may not provide a comprehensive picture of the slow protein mobility, stressing the diagnostic use of a comparison between an integral measure of R1ρ from a 1D spectrum and a corresponding average over the resolved signals in a 2D experiment. This work was funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, SFB-TRR 102 project A8) Rauf Kurbanov is thanked for useful discussions. “
“Eine Reihe von Spurenelementen und Mineralstoffen sind für eine Vielzahl von lebensnotwendigen, biochemischen Prozessen unbedingt notwendig – sie sind somit essentiell. Allerdings sind diese Spurenelemente für die belebte Natur häufig schwer zugänglich.

Similarly benzene presents a high CRI and cardiovascular effects. Phenols GW-572016 datasheet are known to affect the respiratory and immune system. Nicotine apart from the high addictive effect has potential influence on cardiovascular diseases and reproductive system. The major effect of the catalysts on the compounds forming the condensed fraction can be observed once more. On the

other hand, the reduction obtained depends strongly on the brand of cigarettes. The highest reductions are obtained for brands F and H. Al-MCM-41 is always the best, and the only one providing reductions of all the compounds and brands, to such extent that the yields obtained for some compounds in the CFP (the fraction that would be inhaled by the smoker) are below the detection limits

(Table 5). NaY and HUSY do not reduce most of the compounds of brands A and B. Nevertheless, these materials work reasonably well with, for example, brand E. In order to consider all compounds analysed in a more concise way, they were classified in different families MEK inhibitor of compounds as in a previous paper [21]. The families considered were aliphatics (AL), aromatics (AR), carbonyls (CA) and others (OT), in the case of the gas fraction, and in the liquid fraction in addition, nitrogenous (NI), polycyclic aromatics (PAH), epoxies (EP) and phenolics (PHE). The yield of the families considered in the gas and Liq(F + T) fractions is shown in Figure 4a and 4b, respectively. In the gas fraction, the AL family is the most important followed by CA. The family of CA in the gases is mainly formed by very harmful aldehydes, Cobimetinib as seen in Table 4. In the liquid fraction, the NI compounds (referred to a secondary axis) are by far the more numerous due to the high yield in nicotine. PHE, CA and AL present similar yields, despite their order varying from brand to brand, while the less significant compounds are EP, PAH, AR. The average reductions of all the brands for the families of compounds considered are shown in Table 7. In general the reductions in liquids are larger than in the gas fraction. It can be observed that Al-MCM-41 reduces the yield of all families of compounds, especially the group of OT and AR in the

gas fraction and NI and AR in the liquid fraction. The lowest reductions are for the families of AL and PAH, but even so, reductions are close to 15% in these families. NaY seems to be only capable of slightly reducing the AR in gases and NI and EP in liquids, while the HUSY behaviour is in between Al-MCM-41 and NaY. Reductions in PAH compounds were studied by [26] using a CuZSM5 zeolite, and they reported average reductions in PAH of around 40%. In our case the reduction found in the CFP traps for PAH with Al-MCM-41 was 22%. The number of results obtained is very large and has been discussed from different points of view, considering individual compounds, families of compounds, differences among brands, the compounds collected in the gas, in the filter and trap, the effect of the additives, etc.

, 2004). Since the enterotoxaemia due to C. perfringens types B and C share similar neurological signs while type B produces both beta-toxin and ET whereas the type C synthesizes only the beta-toxin (reviewed by McClane et al., 2006), the question of whether other toxin(s) produced together with ET may explain Tofacitinib cost some of the neurological aspects of the disease was raised. Experiments performed in mice demonstrated that none of the C. perfringens type B or D toxins, except ET, is indispensable for inducing illness. However, the other toxins seem to play a synergistic/potentiating

role together with ET (for the contribution of beta-toxin to the pathogenesis of C. perfringens type B, see Fernandez-Miyakawa et al., 2007a; for the potentiating role of alpha-toxin and perfringolysin-O, see Fernandez-Miyakawa et al., 2008). Sialidases from C. perfringens type D may play a role ( Li et al., 2011), see also below. However, the mechanism underlying the potentiating role of the other toxins of factors is still unclear. Possibly, they may favour dissemination of ET by increasing vascular permeability ( Fernandez-Miyakawa et al., 2008, 2007a). To summarize, administration of ET mimics the naturally occurring disease produced by C. perfringens types B or D. The observed clinical manifestations LBH589 ic50 ( Table 1) indicate prominent alterations in the central nervous system

functions. Sudden death may result from severe brain damage; however, it can be caused by blood pressure elevation or heart failure. In the next paragraphs we summarize how ET can pass from the intestine to the brain and generates damage in the central nervous system. Since ET is produced into the gut lumen, it should first cross the intestinal barrier before being disseminated in the whole organism. Many studies have addressed this step (for reviews see Finnie, 2004; Popoff, 2011a). ET binds to mucosal epithelium of small intestine (Goldstein

et al., 2009). ET induces decrease in the trans-epithelial resistance in a time- and dose-dependent manner (Fernandez-Miyakawa et al., 2003; Goldstein et al., 2009). Since no histological and ultrastructural changes in the intestinal epithelium have been observed (except paravascular oedema and presence of selleck compound apoptotic cells in the lamina propia, Goldstein et al., 2009) ET may cross the intestinal barrier by passing through the paracellular pathway, possibly by opening the mucosa tight junctions (reviewed by Popoff, 2011a, 2011b). However, despite ET decreases trans-epithelial resistance in cultured confluent renal epithelial cells, as the MDCK (Madin–Darby Canine Kidney) cells ( Petit et al., 2003) or mpkCCDc14 immortalized mouse kidney cells ( Chassin et al., 2007), no alteration of the tight junctions is detected between the renal cells.

Nucleotide sequences were determined MK-1775 mw using a Dye Terminator Cycle Sequencing kit (Applied Biosystems, Tokyo, Japan) and the ABI 3730xl DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems). Sequences were compared with the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) nucleotide database using the Basic

Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) program. In situ hybridization was performed as described by Matsunaga and Okanoya (2008) and Kato and Okanoya (2010). Common marmosets were removed from the family cage, anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine and xylazine, and then killed by exsanguination. The marmoset could freely express calls before anesthesia. Brains were quickly dissected, frozen on dry ice in an embedding medium (Tissue-Tek; Sakura Finetek, Torrance, CA, USA), and then cut into 20-μm-thick coronal sections on a cryostat. Digoxigenin (DIG)-labeled probes were generated using the original cDNA PCR products as templates. PCR products were generated using universal primers (SP6 primer, 5′-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGG-3′; and T7 primer, 5′-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGG-3′) and purified using the Wizard® SV Gel and PCR Clean-Up System (Promega). Probes were synthesized using T7 or SP6 RNA polymerase (Roche Diagnostics, Switzerland) and a DIG-labeling mix (Roche Diagnostics). Torin 1 research buy Glass-mounted brain tissue sections were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 10 min

and then rinsed three times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 5 min each. Sections were acetylated for 10 min in distilled water containing 1.35% triethanolamine, 0.25% acetic anhydride, and 0.065% HCl, and then incubated in PBS containing 1% Triton X-100 for 30 min. Next, sections were rinsed three times with PBS for 5 min each time, and then incubated

in a hybridization solution of RNase-free water containing 50% formamide, 5 × saline sodium citrate (SSC), 5 × Denhardt’s solution, 0.24 mg/mL yeast tRNA, 0.5 mg/mL salmon sperm DNA, and labeled probes. The sections were coverslipped in a humid box and incubated overnight at 72 °C. The next day, coverslips were removed by placing sections in pre-warmed 5 × SSC at 72 °C, and then the sections washed by sequential incubations for 2 h at 72 °C in 0.2 × SSC, for 5 min at room temperature (RT) in Adenosine triphosphate 0.2 × SSC, and for 5 min at RT in buffer 1 (RNase-free water containing 0.1 M Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 0.15 M NaCl, and 0.001% Tween 20). Sections were then incubated for 1 h in a blocking solution consisting of buffer 1 supplemented with 10% sheep serum. Next, sections were incubated overnight at RT with an alkaline phosphatase-conjugated anti-DIG antibody (1:5000 dilution in blocking buffer; Roche Diagnostics). The following day, sections were washed three times in buffer 1 for 5 min each at RT, and then incubated for 15 min in buffer 2 (0.1 M Tris–HCl (pH 9.5), 0.1 M NaCl, 50 mM MgCl2, 0.001% Tween 20, and 0.

anomala were isolated and divided into two subsamples. In each season one subsample was used for determining the water and ash contents, while the other one was kept frozen at –80°C in a liquid nitrogen GSI-IX concentration freezer for about one month for the biochemical analysis. The number, weight and length of the specimens used in the different seasons are given in Table 1. The second subsample was subdivided into four subsamples to determine the different biochemical components. The content of the worms’ guts were studied but they was not allowed to empty their guts before the biochemical analysis. The water content was determined by drying a known weight of worms at 50–60°C for 24 h to constant weight,

and the ash content was estimated by burning the sample at 500°C in a muffle furnace for six hours. Total protein was measured calorimetrically using the biuret reaction (Gornall et al. 1949). Lipids were extracted with a polar solvent mixture consisting of chloroform, methanol and water (1:2:0.8), and the fat content was determined by weighing the lipids after solvent evaporation selleck chemical according to Bligh & Dyer (1959). Carbohydrates were estimated according to the method described by James (1995), using the following equation: carbohydrates%=100−(moisture%+protein%+lipid%+ash%). Fatty acids

were determined by dissolving lipid samples in a methanol solution of potassium hydroxide (1M) for complete conversion to FAME (fatty acid methyl esters).

This mixture was then evaporated to dryness and dissolved in methanol before injection into the HPLC. The injected solution was regulated according to the optimal concentration on the calibration curve of each Urease FAME standard. The HPLC (Agilent-1200) separation of fatty acids was done using C18 reversed-phase columns (25 cm) and a UV detector at a flow rate of 1 ml min−1 at room temperature of a 97:3 methanol:water eluent mixture. Amino acids were determined using Dionex (ICS-3000). The seasonal water contents in P. anomala were very similar, fluctuating between 83.65% (of wet weight) in winter and 84.8% in autumn. As shown in Figure 1, the ash content was approximately similar during all seasons (18.7%–18.9%), while total protein took the lowest value (56.2%) in autumn and the highest one (66.5%) in summer. Total lipids fluctuated between 6% in autumn and 10.7% in winter and carbohydrates between 6.5% in summer and 18.7% in autumn. The seasonal changes in fatty acids and amino acids are given in Tables 2 and 3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were represented mainly by C20:5n-3, which attained the maximum percentage (76.8%) in winter and the minimum (49.6%) in summer. The fatty acid composition was mostly unsaturated (UFA), with the lowest value (49.6%) in summer and the highest (81%) in autumn. Meanwhile, saturated fatty acids (SFA) made up 2.2% in summer and reached a maximum of 38.6% in spring.

As shown in Fig. 3A, the gene expression of NPR-A in the kidney was significantly lower in the SW compared to the SD group. However, the expression of NPR-A in the RN group compared to the SD group did not reach significance. Similarly, only the gene expression of NPR-C was significantly decreased in the SW group, but not in the RN group, when compared to the SD group (Fig. 3B). The ability of natriuretic peptide receptors to bind 125I-ANP was investigated in mesenteric adipose tissue by in vitro autoradiography. Unlabeled ANP displaces 125I-ANP

bound to both receptors, NPR-A and NPR-C, and c-ANF displaces 125I-ANP bound specifically to NPR-C. The displacement of 125I-ANP from NPR-A can be inferred by the difference between ANP and cANF displacements.

125I-ANP bound reversibly and with high affinity to the mesenteric adipose tissue of all groups, but http://www.selleckchem.com/products/SP600125.html as Fig. 4A–C shows, the SW group presented higher total 125I-ANP binding compared to the other groups. Unlabeled ANP almost completely inhibited 125I-ANP binding to the mesenteric adipose tissue of the SD group. A high displacement rate was also observed using c-ANF, which indicates a high level of NPR-C in the mesenteric adipose tissue of SHR. The percentage of displacement by ANP in the SW group was similar to the SD group, but the displacement by c-ANF was reduced, indicating a reduction of NPR-C ( Fig. 4A, B, D and E). Although no difference in total binding was observed in the RN group compared to the SD group, displacement by ANP VX-809 cell line or c-ANF was reduced, indicating a reduction in the specific receptors, NPR-A and NPR-C, respectively ( Fig. 4C Bcl-w and F). This

study demonstrated for the first time that chronic swimming and running training promote significant changes in endogenous ANP of SHR at rest through alterations in the synthesis and bioavailability of ANP as well as within its gene expression receptors. The data showed increased plasma ANP levels in the SW group and decreased ANP expression in the LA only in the RN group. In the kidney, a decrease in NPR-A such as in NPR-C gene expression was only noticed in the SW group; however, swimming increased 125I-ANP binding to mesenteric adipose tissue and displacement by c-ANF was reduced, indicating a reduction of NPR-C. We did not observe any influence of physical training by running or swimming on HR at rest in SHR. Previously, Schaible and Scheuer had shown decreases in HR after eight weeks of training on running and swimming in normotensive animals [37]. Besides using hypertensive rats, the intensity of training used in our study was different. We used the intensity of the maximal lactate steady state (i.e., the highest intensity at which aerobic metabolism still predominates over anaerobic metabolism) [11] and [33]. This was done so that both training modalities had similar intensities and in order to promote adaptations from predominantly aerobic activities.

Stereotype threat effects have been explained within different frameworks such as the mere effort account (Jamieson & Harkins, 2007), the disruptive mental load (Croizet et al., 2004), the attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007) or the arousal-based theory (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003). The integrated process model (Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008) attempted to integrate existing frameworks for explaining stereotype threat effects. It assumes that interrelated cognitive, physiological and affective processes can impair executive resources thus hampering efficient processing. In an fMRI study by Wraga,

Helt, Jacobs, and Sullivan (2007), the confrontation with a negative stereotype about one’s own group resulted in impaired performance and in raised activation of amygdala as well as in reduced activity in brain regions ABT-199 price associated with high performance

in spatial ability (e.g., ventral and medial portions of anterior prefrontal cortex). Additionally, increased activation in the rostral-ventral anterior cingulate cortex (a region associated with emotional self-regulation) and the right orbital gyrus (a region associated with social knowledge) were found. Similar results were found by Selleck AZD8055 Krendl, Richeson, Kelley, and Heatherton (2008). These results largely support behavioral research showing that coping with negative stereotype related emotions seize cognitive resources

that could otherwise be used for cognitive tasks (Schmader and Johns, 2003 and Schmader et al., 2008). In other words, women may underperform under stereotype threat because valuable cognitive resources are spent on emotional regulation and thereby reducing working memory capacity. The main aim of this study was to examine whether sex differences in neural efficiency could be attributed to the stereotype threat effect. In this study Cyclooxygenase (COX) a visuo-spatial task is selected, since there exist robust sex differences and stereotypes regarding visuo-spatial performance, especially in mental rotation (for a review cf. Halpern et al., 2007). Furthermore, visuo-spatial skills are a fundamental element in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) which indicates the practical significance (Lubinski, 2010) of this study. Lubinski (2010) even suggested that selecting students for advanced learning opportunities in STEM without considering spatial ability might be unprogressive. Therefore, several attempts have been made to discover the origins of sex differences in spatial ability. Women working on visuo-spatial tasks might be affected by implicitly activated stereotypes resulting in higher arousal (cf. O’Brien & Crandall, 2003). Moreover, higher arousal could lead to higher and more diffuse brain activation which then would oppose efficient processing.

The displaced redox metal can then leave the cell, reducing thus its ability to catalyze decomposition

of Fenton reaction (hydroxyl radical formation). An example of the zinc antagonism mechanism is documented by iron-mediated xanthine/xanthine oxidase-induced peroxidation of erythrocyte membranes. Antagonism of radical formation by zinc was reported in copper–iron ascorbate-induced DNA strand breaks, superoxide and hydroxyl radical from xanthine oxidase and NADPH oxidase, Fe(III)-ascorbate-induced methemoglobin formation in red blood cells and other systems. Zinc deficiency has been associated with increased levels of oxidative damage including increased lipid, protein and DNA oxidation (Prasad, 2009). Animal studies confirmed that chronic or long-term absence of zinc makes an organism more to oxidative stress-induced Selleck ABT199 injury. Zinc deficiency effects, combined with ROS formation has been documented by carbon centered free radical production and lipid peroxidation in lung damage, formation of conjugated dienes and malondialdehyde in liver microsomes and lipoprotein oxidation and galactosamine-induced hepatitis in rats (reviewed in Valko et al., 2005). The metallothioneins are metal-binding proteins (6000–7000 kDa) containing 60–68 amino acid residues. The beneficial effects of long-term administration of zinc can be linked to the induction of some other species that serves as the ultimate

antioxidants, among which one of the most effective seems to be metallothioneins (Powell, 2000). About 25–30% of all aminoacids in metallothioneins are cysteine, Selleck Volasertib containing no aromatic amino acids or disulphide bonds and therefore can effectively bind 5–7 g zinc (mol/protein). Recent

studies have reported that ifenprodil the metallothioneins represent a connection between cellular zinc and the redox state of the cell (Maret, 2008). Under conditions of high oxidative stress, changes in the cellular redox state result in release of zinc from metallothionein as a result of sulphide/disulphide exchange. Zinc as an antioxidant, reduces formation of free radicals by several ways (Prasad, 2009) (Fig. 5). Zinc acts as an inhibitor of NADPH oxidase, inducer of metallothionein (effective scavenger of radicals) and is an integral metal of Cu, Zn-SOD. ROS are known to activate NF-kappaB which in turn activates growth factors, antiapoptotic molecules resulting in cell proliferation (cancer), inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules (Prasad, 2009). Zinc reduces inflammatory cytokine production by upregulation of a zinc-finger protein, A20, which inhibits NF-kB activation via TRAF pathway (Prasad, 2008). Thus zinc functions not only as an antioxidant but also as an anti-inflammatory agent. A beneficial effect of intake of the zinc on oxidative stress markers in elderly people has been reported (Prasad et al., 2007). Interleukin (IL-2) is a molecule of cytokine immune system responding to microbial infection.

This is important in closure studies using radiative transfer to solve algorithms for relating IOPs to reflectance, especially when using the same FF family of functions, which may cause about 4% RSR variability depending on the parameterization used (at present there is more than one available, namely Mobley

et al. (2002) and Freda & Piskozub (2007), and none of them seem to be the last word in this field). However, the same variability is important more generally in radiative transfer calculations that still use several different families of analytical function as well as the ‘classical’ Petzold functions. We also show a previously unknown effect of high (up FG-4592 mouse to 10%) discrepancy in RSR values calculated using the same functions in the high ω0 value range (highly scattering waters). This may impact on radiative transfer calculations of waters with bubble clouds. Finally, we discuss the reasons for the peak in the studied discrepancy for solar zenith angles close to 0°. We argue that this peak is caused by differences in the backscattering peak between the phase functions of identical bb/b as a direct result of the effect of solar zenith angles and backscattering angles on selleck screening library vertical

water-leaving radiance values. Włodzimierz Freda acknowledges support from Ministry of Science grant No. N306 470038 and internal funds of Gdynia Maritime University, while Jacek Piskozub acknowledges support from IO PAS, Sopot, statutory research project I.3. We are especially grateful to David McKee of Strathclyde University for his valuable comments. “
“It is usual to use the characteristic periods and heights of incoming irregular waves for calculating run up, overtopping, morphological changes and reflection from perforated seawalls. If a coastal structure is defended by a smooth submerged breakwater, it is important to calculate the modified wave parameters behind it. When waves cross a breakwater, wave breaking and nonlinear Cediranib (AZD2171) interactions occur between the components of wave spectra. These interactions cause

a transition of wave energy from primary harmonics to higher harmonics of the wave spectra. The amount of energy transferred depends on the incoming wave parameters, breakwater geometry and water depth. Beji & Battjes (1993) observed high frequency wave energy amplifications as waves propagate over a submerged bar in a laboratory experiment. They found that the bound harmonics were amplified during shoaling and released in the deeper water region after the bar crest. Wave breaking itself is a secondary effect in this process, dissipating the overall wave energy without significantly changing its relative spectral distribution. Generally speaking, knowledge of the impact of breakwater geometry and incoming wave parameters on wave spectrum deformation is insufficient. The transfer of energy to higher harmonics of the wave spectra leads to a transformation in statistical and spectral wave periods.