In Gram-negative bacteria, histidine utilization genes are strictly controlled by the NVP-BEZ235 molecular weight repressor HutC, which belongs to the GntR family of transcriptional regulators (Magasanik, 1978; Zhang & Rainey, 2007; Sieira et al.,

2010). To find out more about the novel control of hut genes in corynebacteria and the role of histidine catabolism in the lifestyle of C. resistens, we examined the utilization and regulation of the hut gene cluster in C. resistens in the present study. Bacterial strains and plasmids used in this study are listed in Table 1. The growth of C. resistens was examined in IM medium containing 0.125 mg mL−1 MgSO4, 0.125 mg  mL−1 (NH4)2SO4, 13.6 mg mL−1 KH2PO4, 1.5 mg mL−1 NaCl, 10 μg mL−1 FeSO4, 10 μg mL−1 MnSO4, 10 μg mL−1 CaCl2, 2.5 μg mL−1 ZnCl2, 0.5 mg mL−1 cysteine, and 10 μL mL−1 Tween 80. The bacterial growth was monitored in four-hour intervals by measuring the optical density OD600 nm with an Eppendorf BioPhotometer. All Escherichia coli strains were grown at 37 °C in Luria-Bertani medium (Sambrook et al., 1989). The purification of total

RNA from C. resistens cells was performed as described previously (Brune et al., 2007). Isolated RNA was tested for residual genomic DNA by performing PCR assays using RNA samples as template and specific primers amplifying genomic sequences of C. resistens. Transcript levels were measured by real-time reverse CYC202 datasheet transcriptase PCR assays with the LightCycler instrument (Roche Applied Science), using the SensiMix One-Step Kit (Quantace).

Differences in hut transcription between cells grown in IM2 or IM1 medium were determined by comparing the crossing points (CPs) of two biological samples, each measured with two technical replicates. Relative changes in the transcription rate were determined almost as . Transcription start points were detected using the 5′/3′ RACE Kit second generation (Roche Applied Science) and 1 μg of total RNA. RACE-PCR products were cloned in E. coli TOP10 into the pCR2.1-TOPO vector using the TOPO TA Cloning Kit (Invitrogen). Cloned DNA fragments were sequenced to determine the 5′ ends of the mRNAs (IIT Biotech). At least six DNA sequences were obtained with perfect matches to a specific nucleotide of the hut gene region. Upstream regions of the hut genes were amplified from chromosomal DNA of C. resistens by PCR assays. The cloning of PCR products into the promoter-probe vector pEPR1 and the detection of gfp expression in E. coli DH5αMCR were performed as described previously (Schröder et al., 2010). All amplifications were performed with a PTC-100 thermocycler and Phusion Hot Start High-Fidelity DNA polymerase (Finnzymes). The DNA sequences of all oligonucleotides used in this study are summarized in Supporting Information, Table S1. To fuse the HutR protein with a C-terminal streptavidin tag, the coding region of hutR was amplified by PCR.

Analysis of the deduced amino acid Lumacaftor mw sequence of the PhaR protein revealed the presence of a helix–turn–helix motif, which is a feature of a DNA-binding domain. We have determined that this protein can bind to the promoters of phaP, phaR, phaC, or phaZ of Rhodobacter sphaeroides

FJ1. We also found the sequences CTGCGGCGCAG located at nucleotides −69 to −59 and CTGCGGCTGCAG located at −97 to −87 relative to the translation start site of the phaP gene capable of forming a palindrome, which is a characteristic feature of a repressor-binding site. Therefore, we examined its ability to bind the PhaR protein and to function as a regulatory sequence in vitro and in vivo. Rhodobacter sphaeroides wild-type strain FJ1 was described previously Gefitinib in vitro (Yang et al., 2006). Plasmids were replicated in Escherichia coli strain DH5α (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Rhodobacter sphaeroides cells were grown in TSB medium (10 g of Bacto tryptone, 5 g of Bacto soytone, 5 g of NaCl, and 2 g of glucose per liter) at 28 °C in an incubator (100 × 40 × 50 cm3 in size) illuminated with two 60 W incandescent light bulbs, and E. coli cells were grown at 37 °C in Luria–Bertani medium. PCR was performed using Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen). Southern hybridization was performed using DNA probes labeled with digoxigenin by random priming. DNA sequences were determined using

the dideoxy chain termination method (Sanger et al., 1977) using Pfu DNA polymerase (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). The PhaR protein was purified from the cell

lysate of E. coli strain ER2566 harboring pHbR1E as described previously (Chou et al., 2009). The DNA fragments 187-bp FP1 and 134-bp FP2, consisting of nucleotides −71 to +116 and −216 to −83 relative to the translation start site of phaP, respectively, were used as the probes for EMSA. To identify the PhaR-binding sequence, mutagenesis was performed on fragment HSP90 FP1 by PCR with various primers (Table 1). All mutations generated were confirmed by DNA sequencing. EMSA was performed using a DIG gel shift kit (Roche Applied Science, Indianapolis, IN). The DNA probes were labeled at their 3′-ends with DIG-11-ddUTP using terminal transferase. The EMSA reaction mixture (10 μL), which contained 0.75 ng of a DIG-labeled probe and various amounts of the PhaR protein in binding buffer [50 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 1 mM dithiothreitol, and bovine serum albumin (100 μg mL−1)], was incubated at room temperature for 15 min and then mixed with 2.5 μL of a loading buffer (0.25 × TBE buffer, 40% glycerol, and 0.2% w/v bromophenol blue). The entire mixture was loaded on a native 5% polyacrylamide gel (acrylamide : bisacrylamide=29 : 1 w/w). The Mini-PROTEAN II Dual Slab Cell (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA) electrophoresis apparatus was used. Electrophoresis was carried out with 0.5 × TBE buffer (pH 8) at 64 V at room temperature for 2 h. The gel was then blotted onto a positively charged nylon membrane using the Mini Trans-Blot (Bio-Rad) apparatus at 30 V for 30 min.

The bootstrap consensus tree inferred from 500 replicates was taken to represent the evolutionary history of the taxa analyzed. Branches corresponding to partitions reproduced in < 50% bootstrap replicates were collapsed. The tree was drawn to scale, with branch lengths in the same units as those of the evolutionary distances used to infer the phylogenetic tree. The evolutionary distances were computed using the Jukes-Cantor method and are shown as numbers of base substitutions per site. (b) For comparison, a 16S rRNA gene-based phylogenetic tree was shown [adapted from reference (Schmid et al., 2008)] Fig. S9. Rarefaction and diversity analysis of anammox (hzsB and 16S rRNA genes) bacteria. Fig. S10. Phylogenetic

tree of the deduced n-damo

and NC10 phylum bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences (shown in bold) from paddy soil. Table S1. Sequences GPCR Compound Library of designed hydrazine synthase primers targeting the hzsB subunit of anammox bacteria. “
“Peptaibols, mainly produced by Trichoderma, play a pivotal role in controlling plant disease caused by fungi, virus, and Gram-positive bacteria. In the current study, we evaluated the control effect of Trichokonins, antimicrobial peptaibols from Trichoderma pseudokoningii SMF2, on soft rot Dasatinib in vitro disease of Chinese cabbage caused by a Gram-negative bacterium Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum and analyzed the mechanism involved. Trichokonins treatment MTMR9 (0.3 mg L−1) enhanced the resistance of Chinese cabbage against Pcc infection. However, Trichokonins could hardly inhibit the growth of Pcc in vitro, even at high concentration (500 mg L−1). Therefore, the direct effect of Trichokonins on Pcc may not the main reason why Trichokonins could control soft rot of Chinese cabbage. Trichokonin treatment led to an obvious increase in the production of reactive oxygen species hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radical, a significant

enhance of the activities of pathogenesis-related enzymes catalase, polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase, and upregulation of the expression of salicylic acid – responsive pathogenesis-related protein gene acidic PR-1a in Chinese cabbage. These results indicate that Trichokonins induce resistance in Chinese cabbage against Pcc infection through the activation of salicylic acid signaling pathway, which imply the potential of Trichoderma and peptaibols in controlling plant disease caused by Gram-negative bacteria. “
“Fusarium graminearum was grown on four lignocellulosic substrates (corn cobs, wheat bran, hop cell walls, and birchwood) and glucose as the sole carbon source. Proteomic studies performed on the resulting enzymatic cocktails highlighted a great diversity in the number and type of proteins secreted. The cell wall-degrading enzymes (CWDE) proportion varied greatly from 20% to 69%. Only one of the 57 CWDEs detected in this study was common to the five proteomes. In contrast, 35 CWDEs were specific to one proteome only.

, 2000).

An alternative route that is exclusively found in bacteria comprises the direct condensation of exogenous choline and CDP-diacylglycerol in a reaction catalyzed by a PC synthase. This activity has been demonstrated in several symbiotic and CT99021 concentration pathogenic prokaryotes that maintain a close relationship with eukaryotic cells (Sohlenkamp et al., 2000; Martínez-Morales et al., 2003; Comerci et al., 2006; Wessel et al., 2006). In trypanosomatids, the phospholipid biosynthesis is better characterized in Trypanosoma brucei, where genes encoding all enzymes of the Kennedy pathway have been identified, including the CTP = cytidine triphosphate-phosphocholine cytidyltransferase (CCT), which catalyzes the limiting step of this main de novo PC biosynthesis pathway (Smith & Bütikofer, 2010). Alkyl-lysophospholipids (ALPs) and their analogues are derived from naturally occurring phospholipids and have been widely used as anticancer and antiparasitic agents. These compounds exert their cytotoxic effect by interacting with lipid membranes, thus affecting essential cellular processes, such as signal transduction, phosphatidylinositol (PI)-phospholipase

C, and phospholipase D activity (Seewald et al., 1990; Powis et al., 1992; Lucas et al., 2001) and especially PC metabolism (Vogler et al., 1996; Berkovic et al., 2002). In this group of compounds, miltefosine is the most C59 wnt concentration well-characterized derivative. Different hypotheses try to explain the miltefosine mechanism of action, as a compound with nonspecific cytotoxic activity (Stafford et al. 1989), by inhibiting cell signaling via phospholipases (Powis et al., 1992; Berkovic et al., 1996; Van Blitterswijk & Verheij, 2008) or by its ability to interfere in phospholipid production, by modifying the CCT activity (Haase et al., 1991; Wieder et al., 1995), a key enzyme in PC

biosynthesis via the Kennedy pathway. ALPs, such as edelfosine, ilmofosine, and miltefosine have been tested successfully in pathogenic trypanosomatids of Trypanosoma and Leishmania genera by inhibiting cell proliferation and differentiation, promoting Ribociclib cell line ultrastructural changes, and affecting sterol biosynthesis and PC production (Lira et al., 2001; Croft et al., 2003; de Castro et al., 2004; Santa-Rita et al., 2004; Azzouz et al., 2005). Some trypanosomatids such as Angomonas deanei (Teixeira et al., 2011) bear an intracellular bacterium, which maintains an obligate symbiotic relationship with the host protozoan, thus constituting an excellent model to study organelle origin and cellular evolution. According to rDNA sequences, symbionts of different trypanosomatid species are Gram-negative bacteria that present a common origin, being classified in the ß division of Proteobacteria, close to the genus Bordetella (Du et al., 1994).

Phylogenetic analyses showed that g23 fragments from Lake Baikal, except for the single sequence, were most closely related to the ExoT-evens subgroup of marine T4 cyanophages and to previously described subgroups of

uncultured T4 phages from marine and rice field environments. The ExoT evens subgroup, all marine and paddy field subgroups, plus all Baikalian clusters of g23 clones formed one large clade reliably distant from the T-, PseudoT- and SchizoT-evens subgroups of T4 bacteriophages Selleckchem GSI-IX (Fig. 3). Two Lake Baikal clusters (B3, B4) composed of sequences from the Northern basin were grouped with marine T4 cyanophages of the ExoT-evens subgroup. Cluster B4 was more closely related to the g23 sequences of T4-type cyanophages S-PM2 and S-PWM3 isolated on Synechococcus sp. Filée et al. (2005) found g23 sequences related to the ExoT-even Regorafenib concentration subgroup only in surface marine samples, in which Synechococcus sp. are abundant. Short & Suttle (2005) analyzed the

cyanophage diversity based on g20 gene sequences. They concluded that half of the marine phage sequences belonged to the group of T4-type cyanophages that infect Synechococcus sp. In our case, water samples for T4-virus examination were collected from the depth of 5–10 m, where the abundance of picocyanobacteria is the highest (Belykh & Sorokovikova, 2003; Belykh et al., 2007). Our sequences from cluster B3 as well as from cluster B4 were also phylogenetically close to cyanophages P-SSM2 and P-SSM4 isolated from cyanobacterial Prochlorococcus strains. Cyanobacteria of this genus are the dominant prokaryotic components of picophytoplankton in the ocean, but these cyanobacteria have never been found in fresh waters. The sequences related to isolates P-SSM2 and P-SSM4 were also obtained by Jia et al. (2007) in a study of T4-phage diversity in Japanese rice fields, although members of the genus Prochlorococcus

have not been detected in those rice fields. The sequences belonging to ExoT-evens were found in the Northern Baikal sample, where picoplanktonic cyanobacteria were buy Dolutegravir abundant. Therefore, it is most likely that the sequences from clusters B3 and B4 belong to T4 cyanophages whose hosts belong to the genus Synechococcus. A major portion of Baikalian sequences was closely related (with 94–100% posterior probabilities) to uncultured T4 phages from marine and rice field environments (Fig. 3). The cluster B1 composed by sequences from Northern Baikal was close to the Paddy VII subgroup. Several g23 gene fragments from the Southern basin clustered with Paddy groups III, VI and Marine groups III and IV. The similarity of g23 sequences from Lake Baikal and those from paddy soils and marine environments suggests that T4 phages can survive and propagate in diverse environments. Sano et al. (2004) showed that viruses, in particular phages, are able to move between different biomes (e.g. soil and seawater).

4). The LacZ activity levels of cells recovered between 12 and 48 h were low, but increased markedly after 4 days, indicating that a certain incubation period was required for the induction. This delayed expression of LacZ activities was not observed by the constitutively lacZ-expressing

strain, 17616cox::lacZ (Nishiyama et al., 2010), which showed similar levels of LacZ activities at 12 h and 14 days after inoculation in the soil (data not shown). To determine whether the andA operon is essential to survive or grow in soil, the 17616ΔandAc was tested for its ability to proliferate and survive in the soil. The 17616ΔandAc and 17616cox::lacZ cells form white and blue colonies, respectively, on X-gal-containing agar plate. The 1 : 1 mixture of the Cobimetinib two kinds of cells was inoculated into the soil sample, the cells Y-27632 concentration were recovered after various intervals, the CFUs of each type of cells g−1 of soil were counted (Fig. 5a), and the proportion of white colonies to the total (i.e. white plus blue) ones was also calculated (Fig. 5b). During the first 15 days, the CFUs of 17616ΔandAc remained at a low level, whereas the CFUs of 17616cox::lacZ increased. In Fig. 5b, the mutant cell ratio declined during the first week and reached a

steady low level, clearly showing that andA is necessary in the soil environment. We also tested two deletion mutants of ATCC 17616, 17616ΔpdyP and 17616Δsdh. Each mutant carried a chromosomal deletion of a genomic locus that was induced in the soil environment (Nishiyama et al., 2010). Although these mutants were originally included to investigate the

role of the deleted genomic locus in the soil, they showed no decreased CFUs and fitness, and they are controls here (as the results for the two mutants are essentially the same, the result for 17616Δsdh is not shown). Our present study clarified that the andAcAdAbAa gene cluster, predicted to encode anthranilate dioxygenase in B. multivorans ATCC 17616, is indeed involved in the catabolism of tryptophan and anthranilate, and that this gene cluster is under the control of two transcriptional regulators, AndR and Fur, in both the laboratory and soil environments. We Ribonucleotide reductase also showed that this cluster plays a pivotal role in the proliferation in the soil environment. We showed that the andA operon is regulated by Fur, which is an iron-responsive transcriptional regulator. The anthranilate dioxygenase belongs to a class of dioxygenases, which require a [2Fe-2S] cluster in its active site (Batie et al., 1991), and it is not surprising that the iron-regulatory scheme operates on the andA operon. However, the effects of the iron-chelating agent and the disruption of fur gene on the transcriptional activity of andA operon were not remarkable (only at the level of twofold change) in B.

Interassay variability was 1.54–9.03%. All the above biomarker assays were performed at the Laboratory for Clinical Biochemistry Research under the direction of Dr Russell Tracy, Department of Pathology, University of Vermont. F2-isoprostanes were measured in the Eicosanoid Core Laboratory at Vanderbilt University. Briefly, F2-isoprostanes http://www.selleckchem.com/products/azd9291.html were quantified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry after

Sep-Pak (Waters Corporation, Milford, MA, USA) and thin layer chromatography purification as pentafluorobenzyl ester and trimethylsilyl ether derivatives utilizing stable isotope dilution techniques with [2H4]-15-F2t-IsoP (Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, MI, USA) as an internal standard. The precision of this assay is ±4%, the accuracy is ±95% and the interassay variability is <8%. Important demographic, HIV and cardiovascular factors are described for the group overall, by ATV status (currently Y-27632 clinical trial taking ATV vs. not) and by total bilirubin level (≥75th percentile vs. <75th percentile). The median and interquartile range

(IQR) are reported for continuous variables and the frequency and percentage for categorical variables. All demographic, HIV and cardiovascular factors, as well as endpoints, were compared based on ATV status and total bilirubin level using unpaired t-tests or Wilcoxon rank sum tests as distributionally appropriate for continuous variables, and χ2 tests, Fisher’s exact tests or Pearson exact χ2 tests as appropriate for categorical variables. Spearman correlation coefficients were determined between total bilirubin as a continuous variable and endpoints.

All Bortezomib above statistical tests were two-sided and considered significant with P < 0.05. No corrections for multiple comparisons were made in this exploratory study. Next, in order to explore the relationship between FMD and total bilirubin in this sample, univariable followed by multivariable linear regressions were performed. In the univariable analysis, all demographic, HIV and cardiovascular factors, and inflammation, coagulation and oxidative stress markers as well as ATV status and total bilirubin as a dichotomized variable by ≥75th percentile compared with <75th percentile and a continuous variable were modelled with FMD as the outcome. In the first multivariable modelling approach, those variables with P < 0.25 were included in three separate multivariable models with ATV status or total bilirubin, as a categorical or continuous variable, as the independent variable of interest. In addition, a second multivariable modelling approach including clinically relevant variables regardless of statistical association was undertaken.

After a longer period of monocular vision (6.5 h) or exclusively discordant binocular experience (strabismus), sequential stimulation was accompanied by a significant increase of this population, whereas during randomized stimulation it was very similar to that in cats with short periods of daily monocular vision. Finally, there were no differences

in populations of ‘unstable’ cells in cats with long monocular or strabismic vision and those with exclusive monocular experience during sequential stimulation, in contrast with a significant increase in the latter during randomized stimulation. I propose that the detrimental effect of abnormal binocular PI3K inhibitor review experience on binocular processing in the primary visual cortex is associated with a disruption of the mechanisms involved in both discrimination of binocular disparity signals and evaluation of their temporal profiles. “
“The brain of adult teleost fish exhibits several unique and interesting features, notably an intense neurogenic activity linked to persistence of

radial glial cells acting as neural progenitors, and a high aromatase activity supported by strong expression of the cyp19a1b gene. Strikingly, cyp19a1b expression is restricted to radial glial cells, suggesting that estrogens are able to modulate their activity. This raises the question of the origin, central or peripheral, of C19 androgens available for aromatization. This study aimed to investigate the activity and expression of other main steroidogenic enzymes in the brain of adult zebrafish. We demonstrate by high-performance liquid chromatography that the zebrafish brain has the ability

to convert click here Farnesyltransferase [3H]-pregnenolone into a variety of radiolabeled steroids such as 17OH-pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone, androstenedione, testosterone, dihydro-testosterone, estrone, estradiol, progesterone, and dihydro- and tetrahydro-progesterone. Next, we show by in situ hybridization that messengers for key steroidogenic enzymes, such as Cyp11a1 (P450SCC), 3β-Hsd, Cyp17 and Cyp19a1b, are widely expressed in the forebrain where they exhibit an overall similar pattern. By combining aromatase B immunohistochemistry with in situ hybridization, we show that cyp11a1, 3β-hsd and cyp17 messengers are found in part in aromatase B-positive radial processes, suggesting mRNA export. This set of results provides the first demonstration that the brain of fish can produce true neurosteroids, possibly in radial glial cells. Given that radial glial cells are brain stem cells during the entire lifespan of fish, it is suggested that at least some of these neurosteroids are implicated in the persisting neurogenic process. “
“Stress during pregnancy in humans is known to be a risk factor for neuropsychiatric disorders in the offspring. Prenatal stress in rats caused depressive-like behavior that was restored to that of controls by maternal treatment with ladostigil (8.

This raises questions about the input–output properties of cortical neural networks in intact individuals, a crucial issue in understanding the synaptic integrations at cortical level and the mechanisms underlying plasticity. Synaptic integration at the cortical level is far from clear and, except that early and late corticospinal volleys are differentially affected by SICI (see Reis et al., 2008), TMS studies do not provide

further insight. Investigations on single motor units allow the TMS-induced corticospinal volleys to be distinguished in the post-stimulus time histogram (PSTH; Day et al., 1989). This makes it possible to analyse a single corticospinal volley, and to avoid non-linear summation of multiple corticospinal waves at spinal level. We assumed that investigating

selleck inhibitor SICI on a single volley using PSTHs could give an estimate of the synaptic integrations at the level of the cortical network find more underlying this volley. The paired pulse paradigm was tested on single motor units from an intrinsic hand muscle during voluntary contraction. The conditioning intensity was kept constant throughout the experiment, so that the cortical networks mediating SICI would be the same. The test intensity was varied to activate different fractions of cortical neurons (interneurons and pyramidal cells discharging in the corticospinal volleys), to investigate the summation of inhibitory and excitatory inputs to pyramidal cells in the primary motor cortex. We found a non-linear relationship between the level of SICI and the strength of the corticospinal Uroporphyrinogen III synthase volley, suggesting non-linear summations at the cortical level. This study constitutes the first approach to characterize the input–output properties of cortical neural networks under physiological conditions. Experiments were carried out in 12 healthy volunteers (mean age 33.6 ± 5.1 years; seven women), all of whom gave written informed consent to the experimental

procedures. The study was performed according to the Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki), and was approved by the local ethics committees of the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital (Paris, France). The subjects were sitting in a comfortable reclining armchair, with head support. EMG activity was recorded from right first dorsal interosseous (FDI), using bipolar surface electrodes (DE-2.3; Delsys Inc., Boston, MA, USA) positioned over the muscle belly. EMG activity was filtered (0.3 Hz to 1 kHz), amplified (× 10 000–50 000, AM502; Tektronix Inc., Beaverton, OR, USA) and converted into standard pulses, which were collected using software programmed in Labview (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA).

This raises questions about the input–output properties of cortical neural networks in intact individuals, a crucial issue in understanding the synaptic integrations at cortical level and the mechanisms underlying plasticity. Synaptic integration at the cortical level is far from clear and, except that early and late corticospinal volleys are differentially affected by SICI (see Reis et al., 2008), TMS studies do not provide

further insight. Investigations on single motor units allow the TMS-induced corticospinal volleys to be distinguished in the post-stimulus time histogram (PSTH; Day et al., 1989). This makes it possible to analyse a single corticospinal volley, and to avoid non-linear summation of multiple corticospinal waves at spinal level. We assumed that investigating

Small Molecule Compound Library SICI on a single volley using PSTHs could give an estimate of the synaptic integrations at the level of the cortical network click here underlying this volley. The paired pulse paradigm was tested on single motor units from an intrinsic hand muscle during voluntary contraction. The conditioning intensity was kept constant throughout the experiment, so that the cortical networks mediating SICI would be the same. The test intensity was varied to activate different fractions of cortical neurons (interneurons and pyramidal cells discharging in the corticospinal volleys), to investigate the summation of inhibitory and excitatory inputs to pyramidal cells in the primary motor cortex. We found a non-linear relationship between the level of SICI and the strength of the corticospinal Protein kinase N1 volley, suggesting non-linear summations at the cortical level. This study constitutes the first approach to characterize the input–output properties of cortical neural networks under physiological conditions. Experiments were carried out in 12 healthy volunteers (mean age 33.6 ± 5.1 years; seven women), all of whom gave written informed consent to the experimental

procedures. The study was performed according to the Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki), and was approved by the local ethics committees of the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital (Paris, France). The subjects were sitting in a comfortable reclining armchair, with head support. EMG activity was recorded from right first dorsal interosseous (FDI), using bipolar surface electrodes (DE-2.3; Delsys Inc., Boston, MA, USA) positioned over the muscle belly. EMG activity was filtered (0.3 Hz to 1 kHz), amplified (× 10 000–50 000, AM502; Tektronix Inc., Beaverton, OR, USA) and converted into standard pulses, which were collected using software programmed in Labview (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA).