7 However, very little information is available regarding the risk behaviors and the health of elderly travelers, before, during, and after travel, compared to their younger counterparts. Due to their more complex medical background and decreasing immunity we hypothesized that elderly travelers would be more prone to various health risks and would seek medical care more intensively during and after travel. The objective of this study was NVP-LDE225 purchase to assess the risk factors for

travel-related diseases and their occurrence in a population of elderly (aged 60 years and older) Israelis traveling to developing countries compared to young Israeli travelers (aged 20–30 years). Our travel clinic boasts about 6,500 visits per year and is open to travelers of all ages. Travel clinic visits are covered by all health insurances; thus, attending the clinic Stem Cells antagonist requires a modest self-payment only. Inclusion criteria were individuals aged 20 to 30 years or 60 years and older who attended the Meir Medical Center Traveler’s Clinic from January to June 2008. Since the majority of the elderly travel for less than a month, to avoid heterogeneity, only people traveling within

this time frame were included. Prior to travel, each person received detailed counseling and written information regarding travel-associated health risks, including malaria, traveler’s diarrhea, and mountain sickness according to professional guidelines.8 Counseling to all travelers was performed by a staff of three infectious diseases physicians, and included a filmed presentation followed by personal counseling done according to a standardized form. All travelers were immunized

against vaccine-preventable illnesses according to current recommendations8 and provided with prescriptions for prophylactic anti-malarial medications as needed CHIR-99021 cost according to their itinerary. Six to 12 months after the pre-travel clinic visit (4 to 10 months after return), all travelers fitting the inclusion criteria were systematically approached by telephone. A maximum of four attempts were made, at different times of the day, to contact each traveler. Travelers who had been contacted were enrolled and interviewed by telephone using a standardized questionnaire. The questionnaire addressed demographics, underlying medical conditions, current prescription medications, travel history, and characteristics. Risk behaviors, preventive measures, and compliance with anti-malarial medications were assessed. Risk behaviors assessed included eating and drinking habits (purchasing food from street vendors, eating food that was not properly cooked, drinking tap water, open beverages or using ice) as well as non-compliance with malaria prophylaxis measures (using repellants and chemoprophylaxis) and mountain travel. Having bought food on the street, eating improperly cooked food, or drinking anything apart from canned/bottled beverages even once were considered risky behaviors.

As a special case, the failure to detect HMMs in either orientation is a very strong indicator that the entry does not represent a 16S sequence to begin with, at least not one of good quality. This study

was supported by a grant to the Centre for Microbial Diversity and Evolution from the Tula Foundation and a grant from Genome British Columbia. We also acknowledge support from the Frontiers in Biodiversity Research Centre of Excellence (University of Tartu, Estonia). M.H. and C.G.H. contributed equally to this work. Fig. S1. blast output this website screens for GenBank accessions BAAX01013497 (a), AB518927 (b), and DQ022163 (c). Panel a) represents an example of a reverse complementary HSP phosphorylation chimera, which is indicated by the black vertical line in the graphical overview (left) and shown by the pairwise alignment with the top hit in GenBank (right). Panel b) shows a representative example of the query sequence (the top BLAST hit is the query itself) containing a sequence segment of around 500 bp that does not match any of the top hits in GenBank. Panel c) shows a sequence (the top BLAST hit is the query itself) that features a high degree of chimeric anomaly indicated by

the fragmented matching of all top BLAST hits. Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“The filamentous fungi Monascus spp., which have been used in traditional fermented food in Asia for centuries, are well-known producers of a group

of bioactive metabolites that are widely used as food additives and nutraceutical supplements worldwide. However, its potential to produce the mycotoxin citrinin poses a threat to food safety. Here, a G-protein α-subunit-encoding gene, Mga1 (Monascus G-protein alpha-subunit 1), which encodes a protein showing a high degree of identity to Group I α-subunits of fungal heterotrimeric G-proteins, was cloned from Monascus ruber M7. An Mga1-disrupted strain was obtained by homologous recombination. The disruptant produced approximately nine times more citrinin and 71% more pigments www.selleck.co.jp/products/Gefitinib.html than the wild-type strain M7, indicating that the G-protein α-subunit encoded by Mga1 is involved in a signal transduction pathway regulating citrinin and pigment biosynthesis in M. ruber M7. Monascus spp. are mainly used for the production of red fermented rice (RFR), which has been used extensively for more than 1000 years as a food colorant and food preservative for meat and fish, as a folk medicine to promote cardiovascular health, as well as fermentation starters to brew rice wine and vinegar in Asia (Chen & Hu, 2005; Lin et al., 2008).

As a special case, the failure to detect HMMs in either orientation is a very strong indicator that the entry does not represent a 16S sequence to begin with, at least not one of good quality. This study

was supported by a grant to the Centre for Microbial Diversity and Evolution from the Tula Foundation and a grant from Genome British Columbia. We also acknowledge support from the Frontiers in Biodiversity Research Centre of Excellence (University of Tartu, Estonia). M.H. and C.G.H. contributed equally to this work. Fig. S1. blast output Omipalisib screens for GenBank accessions BAAX01013497 (a), AB518927 (b), and DQ022163 (c). Panel a) represents an example of a reverse complementary PD-166866 cell line chimera, which is indicated by the black vertical line in the graphical overview (left) and shown by the pairwise alignment with the top hit in GenBank (right). Panel b) shows a representative example of the query sequence (the top BLAST hit is the query itself) containing a sequence segment of around 500 bp that does not match any of the top hits in GenBank. Panel c) shows a sequence (the top BLAST hit is the query itself) that features a high degree of chimeric anomaly indicated by

the fragmented matching of all top BLAST hits. Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“The filamentous fungi Monascus spp., which have been used in traditional fermented food in Asia for centuries, are well-known producers of a group

of bioactive metabolites that are widely used as food additives and nutraceutical supplements worldwide. However, its potential to produce the mycotoxin citrinin poses a threat to food safety. Here, a G-protein α-subunit-encoding gene, Mga1 (Monascus G-protein alpha-subunit 1), which encodes a protein showing a high degree of identity to Group I α-subunits of fungal heterotrimeric G-proteins, was cloned from Monascus ruber M7. An Mga1-disrupted strain was obtained by homologous recombination. The disruptant produced approximately nine times more citrinin and 71% more pigments 4��8C than the wild-type strain M7, indicating that the G-protein α-subunit encoded by Mga1 is involved in a signal transduction pathway regulating citrinin and pigment biosynthesis in M. ruber M7. Monascus spp. are mainly used for the production of red fermented rice (RFR), which has been used extensively for more than 1000 years as a food colorant and food preservative for meat and fish, as a folk medicine to promote cardiovascular health, as well as fermentation starters to brew rice wine and vinegar in Asia (Chen & Hu, 2005; Lin et al., 2008).

When baseline values differed between groups, analysis of covariance was used to adjust and make between-group

comparisons. Paired t-tests were used for within-group comparisons. Nonnormally distributed outcome variables (area under the curve for glucose and insulin) were log-transformed before making any comparisons. Integrated insulin and glucose areas under the curve were measured check details using the trapezoidal method. All other outcomes were normally distributed. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were used to evaluate associations between variables. P<0.05 (two-tailed) was considered significant. Fifty participants completed the intervention, and at baseline the two groups were matched for age, gender, race, years known to be HIV infected, immune and Z-VAD-FMK ic50 virological status,

current use of cART, past medical history of CVD, diabetes, hypertension, and alcohol and tobacco use (Table 1). None of the participants changed cART during the study. At baseline, 38% of participants were using tobacco, 26% had a history of hypertension, 42% had pre-hypertension (120–139/80–89 mmHg; AHA criteria [40]) and 24% had impaired glucose tolerance (American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria [41]), and although the average per cent body fat was normal (23–24%), the average waist circumference was high (men, 97 ± 21 cm; women, 100 ± 14 cm), suggesting that most of the body fat was located centrally. The baseline Framingham CVD risk score was similar between the groups, and indicated mild–moderate 10-year CVD risk. However, 14% of the participants in each group had baseline Framingham CVD risk scores that were

>10% (moderate–high risk). On average, yoga participants attended 33 ± 7 sessions; the minimum number of sessions attended was 14 and the maximum was 45 during the 20-week yoga programme. After 20 weeks, CD4 T-cell count and HIV RNA levels were unchanged in the yoga (495 ± 155 to 507 ± 134 cells/μL; 90–83% undetectable) and standard of care groups (570 ± 256 to 592 ± 268 cells/μL; 90–90% undetectable). Average baseline glucose and insulin levels and homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) (Table 1) were normal and not different between groups. Oral glucose tolerance and insulin action were not improved after the yoga intervention Chloroambucil (Fig. 2). HOMA index, glucose and insulin levels and area under the curve during the oGTT were not different between the groups and did not change in either group after the interventions. Insulin levels and area under the curve during the oGTT tended to be lower after yoga (12%), but differences compared with the standard of care group were not statistically significant (P=0.46). Baseline serum triglycerides and total and non-HDL cholesterol levels were higher in the yoga group than in the standard of care group (Fig. 3; P<0.04).

When baseline values differed between groups, analysis of covariance was used to adjust and make between-group

comparisons. Paired t-tests were used for within-group comparisons. Nonnormally distributed outcome variables (area under the curve for glucose and insulin) were log-transformed before making any comparisons. Integrated insulin and glucose areas under the curve were measured Dabrafenib supplier using the trapezoidal method. All other outcomes were normally distributed. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were used to evaluate associations between variables. P<0.05 (two-tailed) was considered significant. Fifty participants completed the intervention, and at baseline the two groups were matched for age, gender, race, years known to be HIV infected, immune and Selleckchem Pirfenidone virological status,

current use of cART, past medical history of CVD, diabetes, hypertension, and alcohol and tobacco use (Table 1). None of the participants changed cART during the study. At baseline, 38% of participants were using tobacco, 26% had a history of hypertension, 42% had pre-hypertension (120–139/80–89 mmHg; AHA criteria [40]) and 24% had impaired glucose tolerance (American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria [41]), and although the average per cent body fat was normal (23–24%), the average waist circumference was high (men, 97 ± 21 cm; women, 100 ± 14 cm), suggesting that most of the body fat was located centrally. The baseline Framingham CVD risk score was similar between the groups, and indicated mild–moderate 10-year CVD risk. However, 14% of the participants in each group had baseline Framingham CVD risk scores that were

>10% (moderate–high risk). On average, yoga participants attended 33 ± 7 sessions; the minimum number of sessions attended was 14 and the maximum was 45 during the 20-week yoga programme. After 20 weeks, CD4 T-cell count and HIV RNA levels were unchanged in the yoga (495 ± 155 to 507 ± 134 cells/μL; 90–83% undetectable) and standard of care groups (570 ± 256 to 592 ± 268 cells/μL; 90–90% undetectable). Average baseline glucose and insulin levels and homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) (Table 1) were normal and not different between groups. Oral glucose tolerance and insulin action were not improved after the yoga intervention Silibinin (Fig. 2). HOMA index, glucose and insulin levels and area under the curve during the oGTT were not different between the groups and did not change in either group after the interventions. Insulin levels and area under the curve during the oGTT tended to be lower after yoga (12%), but differences compared with the standard of care group were not statistically significant (P=0.46). Baseline serum triglycerides and total and non-HDL cholesterol levels were higher in the yoga group than in the standard of care group (Fig. 3; P<0.04).

6% (n = 8) vs. 11.8% (n = 63), respectively]. However, the severity of rash was similar between genders, with low proportions of male and female patients in the etravirine group reporting grade 3 rash (1.1% vs. 3.3%, respectively), and no patients reporting grade 4 rash. In total, 7.7% and 13.6% of etravirine and placebo patients had a previous history of NNRTI-related rash; prior history of NNRTI-related rash had no effect on the frequency of rash in either treatment group. Thus, in the etravirine group, the occurrence of rash in patients with an NNRTI-related rash history was

21.7% (n = 10) vs. 20.4% (n = 113) for those without a prior history, and in the placebo group the frequencies were AZD2281 datasheet 14.6% (n = 12) vs. 11.3% (n = 59), respectively. Regardless of severity or causality,

the frequency of hepatic AEs (from all system order classes combined) was low and similar between the treatment groups (8.7% vs. 7.1% in the etravirine and placebo groups, respectively; difference = 1.6%: 95% CI −1.5 to 4.6; P = 0.3370, Fisher’s exact test). Etoposide purchase The frequency of grade 3 or 4 hepatic AEs (all system order classes combined) was similar between the treatment groups; 4.2% (n = 21) and 3.0% (n = 18) in the etravirine and placebo groups, respectively. Permanent discontinuation because of hepatic AEs was infrequent in both arms (1.3% for etravirine and 0.7% for placebo). acetylcholine The most commonly reported hepatic AEs occurred in the system order class ‘investigations’

and were related to increases in liver enzymes (4.8% vs. 4.3% in the etravirine and placebo groups, respectively; P = 0.6808) and there were three cases of hepatitis reported (one in the etravirine group and two in the placebo group). Grade 3 or 4 ALT and AST increases were low in each treatment group; 4.4% vs. 2.3% (P = 0.0540) and 3.9% vs. 2.5% (P = 0.1899) in the etravirine and placebo groups, respectively. No increase over time was observed in ALT or AST levels (Fig. 2). Grade 3 or 4 increases from baseline in fasted lipid-related laboratory abnormalities [triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol] generally occurred at a similar frequency in the etravirine and placebo groups; however, a tendency for a higher frequency of grade 3 or 4 elevated triglycerides and total cholesterol with etravirine vs. placebo was observed (triglycerides: 11.3% vs. 7.0%, P = 0.0117; total cholesterol: 9.2% vs. 6.0%, P = 0.0379; LDL-cholesterol: 9.4% vs. 8.1%, P = 0.4704). Changes from baseline over time in mean lipid levels were comparable between treatment groups (Fig. 3). Small increases compared with baseline were observed for total cholesterol (0.5 mmol/L for both groups), HDL-cholesterol (0.1 mmol/L for both groups) and LDL-cholesterol (0.5 mmol/L for both groups) (Fig. 3).

In human temporal lobe epilepsy as well as in experimentally induced epilepsy following unilateral kainate injection into the hippocampus, Reelin expression is significantly decreased, associated with an increased migratory activity of granule cells in the dentate gyrus, termed granule cell dispersion (Haas et al., 2002; Heinrich et al., 2006; Frotscher & Haas, 2009).

Moreover, Reelin expression was found to be altered in a variety of neuropsychiatric diseases such as schizophrenia (Impagnatiello et al., 1998), major depression (Fatemi et al., 2000), autism (Fatemi, 2002) and Alzheimer’s disease (Botella-Lopez et al., 2006; for reviews see Knuesel, 2010; Frotscher, 2010). To what extent decreased Reelin expression in these diseases also affects the location of SPNs in the spinal cord remains to be investigated. Anti-diabetic Compound Library ic50 This work was supported by the

Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft FK228 ic50 (SFB 780, project B5, to H.H.B. and M.F., and SFB 592, project A20, to M.F.). M.F. was supported by the Hertie Foundation. This is in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Dr. med. at the University of Freiburg (M.T.K.). Abbreviations ApoER2 apolipoprotein E receptor 2 BSA bovine serum albumin Dab1 Disabled1 E embryonic day HBSS Hank’s buffered salt solution IMLC intermediolateral column LIMK1 LIM kinase 1 NGS normal goat serum PBS phosphate-buffered saline else PFA paraformaldehyde SPNs sympathetic preganglionic neurons TBS-T Tris-buffered solution with 0.05% Tween20 VLDLR very low-density lipoprotein receptor “
“In response to a change in the direction of gravity, morphogenetic changes of fruiting bodies of fungi are usually observed as gravitropism. Although gravitropism in higher fungi has been studied for over 100 years, there is no convincing evidence regarding the graviperception mechanism in mushrooms. To understand gravitropism in mushrooms, we isolated differentially expressed genes in Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom) fruiting bodies developed under three-dimensional clinostat-simulated

microgravity. Subtractive hybridization, cDNA representational difference analysis was used for gene analysis and resulted in the isolation of 36 individual genes (17 upregulated and 19 downregulated) under clinorotation. The phenotype of fruiting bodies developed under simulated microgravity vividly depicted the gravitropism in mushrooms. Our results suggest that the differentially expressed genes responding to gravitational change are involved in several potential cellular mechanisms during fruiting body formation of P. ostreatus. In most basidiomycetous fungi, the characteristic morphological development, fruiting body formation, is required for sexual reproduction involving the production of a large number of basidiospores (Kües, 2000).

, 2012). Recently, the variation in manure-amended soil survival capability among 18 E. coli O157 isolates was studied and a strong relationship between the individual metabolic capacity and long-term survival of the strains was observed (Franz et al., 2011). In particular, oxidative capacity on propionic acid, α-ketobutyric acid and Trametinib cell line α-hydroxybutyric acid was strongly correlated with enhanced survival. Recent gene expression studies showed that rpoS mutants of E. coli O157 demonstrated an impaired ability to oxidize these three fatty acids

(Dong et al., 2009). Intrigued by this observation, the isolates used in the soil survival experiment (Franz et al., 2011) were screened for rpoS allelic variations. It was hypothesized that the conditions in manure-amended soil favour a functional RpoS system. Consequently, the manure-amended soil environment would be an unlikely source of rpoS mutants. As the bovine intestine forms the principal reservoir of E. coli O157 and humans can be considered a transient host with distinct conditions in

the gastrointestinal tract, it was hypothesized that the human gut could provide a niche for the rise and selection of rpoS mutants. Therefore, the prevalence of rpoS allelic variations among a set of 187 E. coli O157 isolates of bovine, food and human origin (Franz et al., 2012) was determined. The detailed characteristics of the E. coli O157 strains used in the manure-amended soil survival Maraviroc study as well as the set of 187 strains (73 bovine, 29 food and 85 human clinical isolates) have been described in detail previously (Franz et al., 2011, 2012). Most of the strains were isolated and stored, and have no history of prolonged laboratory use. The complete rpoS gene was amplified using the following primers: rpoS_−130F, 5′-CTTGCATTTTGAAATTCGTTAC-3′; and rpoS_+125R, 5′-GATGATGAACACATAGGATGC-3′ in a 50-μL PCR mixture containing 1 × PCR buffer (Invitrogen BV, Breda, the Netherlands), 2.5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM

dNTPs, 0.2 μM of each primer, 1 U Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen BV) and 2 μL DNA template (± 20 ng). The following PCR programme was used: one cycle of 95 °C for 5 min; 35 cycles of 95 °C for 30 s, 56 °C for 30 s and Protirelin 72 °C for 60 s; one cycle 72 °C for 10 min. The PCR product was treated with ExoSAP-IT (GE Healthcare, Diegem, the Netherlands) to remove unwanted deoxynucleotides and primers. The sequence of the generated PCR product was determined using the ABI Big Dye Terminator kit and an ABI 3730 DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Bleiswijk, the Netherlands). The PCR primers were used for sequencing as well two others: rpoS_−4F, 5′-CCTTATGAGTCAGAATACGC-3′; rpoS_773R, 5′-CTCTGCTTCATATCGTCATC-3′. The functioning of the RpoS general stress resistance system was determined phenotypically by growth on succinate minimal medium (Chiang et al., 2011).

, 1992), enhanced contraction of vascular smooth muscle (Antunes and Málaque, ICG-001 clinical trial 2003), effects on blood pressure (Costa et al., 1996), activation of the tissue kallikrein-kinin system (Marangoni et al., 1993) and increased nitric oxide (NO) release in cavernosum tissue (Nunes et al., 2008). In severe spider envenomations, cardiovascular alterations such as hypertension, tachycardia and arrhythmias have been described (Antunes and Málaque, 2003). Phoneutria nigriventer (Ctenidae, Labidognatha), popularly known as the “armed” spider, is an aggressive venomous spider found in South America ( Lucas, 1988), responsible for approximately 40% of the spider

bites in humans in Brazil ( Bucaretchi et al., 2000). Its venom contains a cocktail of toxins that affect ionic channels (see review

Gomez et al., 2002) including voltage gated sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+) and potassium (K+) channels. We have previously shown that one component of the venom, a neurotoxic peptide originally named Tx3-1 (Cordeiro et al., 1993) blocks voltage activated A-type potassium currents in the GH3 neuroendocrinal cell line. In the interest of large scale testing of this peptide, we subsequently produced recombinant Tx3-1 which maintained its channel blocking activity (Carneiro et al., 2003). In light of its potassium channel blocking activity, this toxin was recently renamed PhKv. In the present study, we describe large scale production of recombinant PhKv and investigated the effects of native and recombinant PhKv on cardiac DNA-PK inhibitor function using an isolated heart preparation and isolated ventricular cardiac myocytes. PhKv toxin was purified from the PhTx3 fraction of the P. nigriventer venom, according to Cordeiro et al. (1993). PhKv,

previously named Tx3-1, contains 40 amino acids and a molecular weight of 4584 Da. All other chemical reagents were of analytical grade. The toxin was dissolved in deionized water and MG-132 in vivo work solutions were prepared by dilution of frozen 1 mM stock solutions immediately before use. The coding region for the toxin was produced by PCR using the Tx3-1-ISEF clone (Carneiro et al., 2003) as template. Serial PCR reactions were used in order to change some of the spider cDNA codons to Escherichia coli preferential codons. The oligonucleotides Tx31F (5′GCA GAA TGC GCA GCT GTT TAT GAA CGT TGC GGT AAA G 3′) and Tx31R (5′TTT GCA CGG ACG TTC TTC ACA G 3′) were used to amplify a fragment that codes for the 5′ region of the spider cDNA and the oligonucleotides Tx31F2 (5′TGA AGA ACG TCC GTG CAA ATG C 3′) and Tx31R2 (5′ AAT TCT GCA GTC ATT CGC TGA TAA ATT TTT TGC 3′) were used to amplify a fragment that codes for the 3′ region of the spider Pskov cDNA.

The lowest P-value of SMTAs was observed for Contig10156-1-OP1 (P = 1.47E − 10, R2 = 0.15) associated with seed coat color ( Table 2). The three analytical approaches (SFA, Q GLM, and Q + K MLM) were compared for numbers of SMTAs. The highest number of SMTAs (1141) was detected for the SFA

approach, followed by the Q GLM approach (890). The lowest number of SMTAs (63) was detected by the Q + K MLM approach, which only detected 5.5% and 7.1% of the SMTAs detected by SFA and Q GLM, respectively. These results confirm previous observation that the number of SMTAs estimated with GLM is higher than with MLM [40]. Forty-four common SMTAs involving selleckchem 38 SNPs were detected by all three methods ( Table 2). Six of the 38 SNPs each had two SMTAs; and the remaining 32 SNPs had one SMTA. The lowest P-value was observed for the association of Contig10156-1-OP1 with the seed coat color trait ((P = 4.91E − 11, Table 2). Most interestingly, nine SMTAs were revealed at P < 0.0001 with all three approaches, considering kinship and/or population structure for this collection. These nine SMTAs include five for seed coat color, one for leaf undulation,

two for leaf anthocyanin, and one for stem anthocyanin. Four SNPs involved in the five SMTAs for seed coat color were previously mapped on Linkage Group 7. Two SNPs mapped on Linkage Group 9 were associated with leaf and stem anthocyanin. Results from the current study were consistent with our previous study using the same Oligo Pool Assay (OPA), LSGermOPA [30]. In that report, leaf type accessions contained high within-horticultural type genetic variability http://www.selleckchem.com/products/CAL-101.html (24.2%, P > 0.01), which was almost identical to the current analysis (25.3%, P > 0.01) ( Table 1). The high level of genetic diversity

revealed by SNPs was consistent with the high morphological variability observed within this horticultural type. Accessions of this type have leaves that widely differ in shape (entire to highly lobed), margins (straight to highly undulating), size (small to large), or color (various shades of green and various distribution and intensities of anthocyanin) [42]. The high genetic variability 6-phosphogluconolactonase within this type is evident from Fig. 1 in which the leaf type accessions distributed across five of the six clades. The butterhead type also possesses high genetic variability within horticultural type. The accessions of this type were clustered in three clades ( Fig. 1). In contrast, a relatively lower level of genetic variability was observed within crisphead horticultural types. However, our current estimation of genetic diversity for this group (19.5%) was higher than previously reported (2.4%) (Table 1). Also, in the current study crisphead type lines were divided into two Clades, I and II. This increased diversity is probably related to a more than 10-fold increase in the number of accessions analyzed (from 5 to 53 accessions).