2006). However, early treatment may decrease negative

outcomes of ADHD including the rate of conduct disorder and adult antisocial personality disorder (Dopheide and Pliszka 2009). There are both pharmacological and nonpharmacological (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy [CBT]) treatments of ADHD. Stimulants, such as methylphenidate (MPH; Ritalin and Concerta) and dextroamphetamine-AMP (d-AMP; Adderall) are the most common pharmacologic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical treatments (The MTA Cooperative Group 1999) and abundant data support the potentially positive effects of Azacitidine solubility dmso prescription stimulants for the majority of children, adolescents, and adults with ADHD. Experts estimate that approximately 60% of children with ADHD are treated with prescription stimulants (Center for Disease Control and Prevention 2005a); therefore, approximately three million children in this country take stimulants for problems with focusing. At the same time, many studies have revealed the numerous adverse effects associated with prescription stimulants when they are used inappropriately. Stimulants are classified Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as Schedule II drugs (i.e., Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical providing positive medicinal effects but also considerable

abuse potential). The nonmedical use of prescription stimulants represents the second common most form of illicit drug use in college, second only to marijuana use (Johnston et al. 2004). Indeed, many consider stimulants – whether obtained by prescription or illicitly – a convenient option to improve performance or to induce euphoria (get “high”). Major daily newspapers such as The New York Times have reported a trend toward growing use of prescription stimulants, commonly called “smart pills,” by high school and college students for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical enhancing school or work performance (Jacobs Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 2005). Unfortunately, media reports appear to condone this behavior as 95% of articles mentioned at least one possible benefit of using a prescription stimulant for neuroenhancement, but only 58% mentioned any risks/side effects (Partridge et al. 2011). Stimulant misuse is often predicted on individuals’ misconceptions or simple lack of knowledge of associated

risks. This review discusses Tryptophan synthase recent studies regarding the use and misuse of stimulants among high school and college students, including athletes, with and without ADHD. Given the widespread belief that prescription stimulants are “smart pills,” we address if these drugs actually enhance cognition in a healthy individual. Athletes may see stimulants as a way to help maintain physical fitness for their competitive sport or to improve their concentration. Finally, we elaborate on the long-term effects of chronic stimulant use. Addiction and tolerance are major concerns, as are psychosis and cardiovascular effects. Surprisingly, these associated risks of stimulant misuse are not frequently addressed in the media and literature.