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IG biopsy coupled with deformable image registration should permit improved longitudinal sampling [12]. All of the above work could have significant clinical implications, not just for identifying a more effective therapeutic drug target, but also for monitoring treatment response. Identifying molecular targets with specific imaging markers should lead to development of better chemotherapeutic agents with less toxicity. Early detection of a favorable response or failure of a treatment regimen using combined imaging and genomic markers could potentially help expedite drug approval, generating substantial cost savings for clinical trials. Mouse and human-in-mouse selleck compound models of malignancies (e.g., patient-derived xenografts, transgenic) are routinely used for drug efficacy and toxicity testing [49] and [50].

The mouse model research strategies prove to be promising for understanding biological factors in prediction and response to therapy, as direct access to tissues during longitudinal studies is possible. In addition, a growing body of evidence shows that reliable preclinical data can be merged with patient data and used to determine what therapy may be used to treat specific malignancies [51]. This newer approach to integrated cross-species testing, termed co-clinical trials, involves concurrent assessment of novel drug combinations in mouse and human-in-mouse models of tumors, and in patients with recurrent or metastatic disease with whom the mice are genotypically matched [52] and [53]. Recent published literature demonstrates that well-documented, integrated cross-species approaches are of value for clinical decision making [54]. Radiogenomics will clearly play an important role in co-clinical trial studies where imaging phenotypes will be correlated with genomics

signatures. A powerful component of both pre- and co-clinical testing is the use of various in vivo imaging modalities that either mirror medical imaging practices or provide additional biological information [52], [53] and [55]. Imaging is a key to success in co-clinical NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase investigations, providing real-time monitoring of the animal subjects for response, disease progression, recurrence, or metastasis, and ready access to longitudinal tissue samples for genomic analysis using image guidance. The evolving pre- and co-clinical approaches require development and incorporation of data and semantic standards to ensure reliability of interpretation and use of research resources such as data archiving and the implementation of quality improvement methods as reviewed later.