Remarkably, by the age of 75 years, more than half of the functional capacity of the CV system has been lost,8 leading to VO2max values lower than that which is required for many common activities of daily

living.9 More than just leading to decreases in quality of life, low cardiorespiratory fitness has been associated with CV disease and all-cause mortality.10, 11 and 12 The CV system remains adaptable at any age,13 and 14 with relative increases in VO2max in older populations equivalent to those seen in younger individuals. Physical activity (PA) has long been associated with the attenuation of physical decline associated with aging.15 The purpose of this article is to: 1. Examine the decline in physiological variables associated with aging and a sedentary lifestyle. Aging is associated with physiological declines, notably a decrease in BMD and lean body mass (LBM),

with a concurrent increase Dabrafenib concentration selleck kinase inhibitor in body fat and central adiposity.16 and 17 It is possible that the onset of menopause may augment the decline in physiological decline associated with aging and inactivity.5 Wang and colleagues18 compared almost 400 early postmenopausal women and found higher levels of total body fat, as well as abdominal and android fat in postmenopausal women. Consequently, the authors could not conclude that the changes in body fat were related to menopause or merely a result of aging alone. very The authors did note, however, that changes in fat-free mass (FFM), including bone mass, may be attributed to menopause-related mechanisms, including deficiencies in growth hormones and estrogen. Douchi et al.5 had similar findings when comparing body composition variables between pre- and post-menopausal women. The authors demonstrated an increase in percentage of body

fat (30.8% ± 7.1% vs. 34.4% ± 7.0%), trunk fat mass (6.6 ± 3.9 kg vs. 8.5 ± 3.4 kg), and trunk–leg fat ratio (0.9 ± 0.4 vs. 1.3 ± 0.5) with aging. Concurrently, they found that lean mass (right arm, trunk, bilateral legs, and total body (34.5 ± 4.3 kg vs. 32.5 ± 4.0 kg)) also declined with age. Baker and colleagues 19 found that females had a greater decline in BMD with age compared to males. More so, a higher incidence of metabolic syndrome (an accumulation of cardiovascular disease risk factors including obesity, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high blood pressure, and high fasting glucose) has been shown in middle-aged women during the postmenopausal period. This is due in part to the drastic changes in body composition, as previously discussed, but also a change in PA levels. In a longitudinal study of over 77,000 (34–59 years) women spanning 24 years, van Dam et al. 20 found high body mass index (BMI, 25+) and lower levels of PA (<30 min/day of moderate to vigorous intensity activity) to be attributed with a higher risk of CV disease, cancer, and all-cause mortality. Furthermore, Sisson et al.