One important milestone linking AGEs, oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways was the discovery of RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end-products) that is a multi-ligand receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily long implicated in inflammation, diabetes and its complications, nephropathy, neurodegeneration and cancer [17•]. As depicted in Figure 1 cellular signaling due to AGE–RAGE interactions seems to be a key component in pro-oxidative pro-inflammatory condition in these pathologies, and suppressing RAGE

expression or enhancing other mechanisms to block RAGE–AGE interaction has been postulated as mechanisms to mitigate the carbonyl stress. Soluble forms of RAGE Selleck UK-371804 in the circulation (s-RAGE) seem to exert anti-atherogenic effects as a decoy receptor that abolishes RAGE signaling. The C-terminal truncated form of RAGE mRNA lacks the sequences encoding the transmembrane and intra-cytoplasmic domains. The extracellular domain of RAGE thereby produced, is released from cells, found in the circulation in humans. It Selleckchem KU-60019 has been named endogenous secretory RAGE (esRAGE) and may play a role in cardiovascular disease. EsRAGE may then exert a decoy function: a feedback mechanism has been proposed by which

esRAGE prevents RAGE signaling. It has also been suggested that some sRAGE isoforms that could act as decoy receptors may be cleaved proteolytically from the native RAGE expressed on the cell surface, suggesting heterogeneity of the origin and nature of sRAGE [18]. In summary, AGE formation may thus accelerate pathological process through two general mechanisms which can be either non-receptor-dependent and receptor mediated [19] (Figure 2). The growing interest

in the relationship of chronic diseases and AGEs resulted in an increased number of papers and comprehensive reviews in the international literature. Histamine H2 receptor Research has encompassed all relevant aspects, such as AGEs in hypertension, cardiovascular risk, insulin resistance, oxidative stress [9••], [17•] and [20•] the main discoveries that link the Maillard reaction with health and nutrition [1], [10•] and [11] the role of RAGEs and mechanisms associated in chronic diseases [8], [17•], [21], [22] and [23]. At the center of this discussion lies the question whether dietary AGEs or Maillard reaction products (MRP) actually play a role in increasing the risk of non-communicable diseases and/or their complications [24]. The discovery and elucidation of the glycation reaction and its consequences in living organisms lead to the ‘carbonyl stress theory’ [16], [25] and [26]. This theory proposes that increasing ingestion of Maillard reaction products from processed foods, in the last decades, increases the pool of circulating carbonyl compounds and, therefore, the rate of AGEs generation with major consequences to health.