However, we did not observe any significant difference with respect to transformation frequencies using Akt inhibitor drugs either unmodified PCR fragments or linearized plasmids containing the same flanking region as donor DNA (data not shown). Furthermore, in the case of natural transformation special mechanisms are involved in the protection of the incoming DNA. One such candidate is DprA, a protein that, in Streptococcus, binds single stranded DNA once it

reaches the cytoplasm and prevents it from degradation [20, 21]. The gene for V. cholerae’s DprA homologous is induced upon growth on chitin [22] and essential for natural transformation. Consequently, V. cholerae might employ selleck inhibitor the same strategy, e.g. the protection of the incoming DNA by DprA, which then guides Salubrinal solubility dmso it to RecA for homologous recombination. In terms of homologous recombination we compared donor DNA with flanking region that were either homologous to the recipient’s genome

(Fig. 3A, C) or a mixture of homologous and heterologous (Fig. 3B, C). It turned out that homologous flanking regions do bear an advantage over non-homologous regions (Fig. 3, lane 6 versus lane 8) though by further increasing the length of the flanks the difference in transformation frequency was negligible (Fig. 3, lane 7 versus lane 9). With respect to the length of the flanking region we observed an approximately 20-fold increase in transformation frequency from 500 bp flanking regions on both ends (Fig. 3C, lane 4) towards 2000 bp (Fig. 3C, lane 6). This enhanced transformation probably reflects a combination of protection against intra- and extracellular nucleases and the ability for homologous recombination. That the transformation frequency decreases

for smaller DNA fragments was already shown for the organisms Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and Haemophilus influenzae, especially beyond a minimal DNA size of 1 kb and 3.5 kb, respectively [23, 24]. In the latter case this was explained by a partial degradation of 1.5 kb of the incoming transforming DNA before it gets integrated into the genome [24]. Another hypothesis Tideglusib that should be taken into consideration is the potential occurrence of uptake signal sequences (USS) in the gDNA samples versus the PCR derived fragments. Such sequences have been described for other gram-negative bacteria like Neisseria gonorrhoeae and H. influenzae [25, 26] and it was shown that “”the presence of a 10-bp uptake sequence enhanced a DNA fragment’s ability to transform the gonococcus by four orders of magnitude”" [27]. For N. gonorrhoeae and H. influenzae these sequences were estimated to occur every 1 kb [25] and 1248 bp [28], respectively, with a total number of 1465 copies of the USS (9-base pair in length) in the genome of H. influenzae Rd [28]. As the transformation frequencies of PCR-derived fragments were more than sufficient for the purpose of this study we did not follow up on the hypothesis of USS in V.