g. Grime’s Graves, near Thetford, England worked from 3000 BC. As metals began to be used through the Bronze Ibrutinib cell line and Iron ages, many mines were excavated around centres of population, to shallow depths, by humans using simple tools. Other excavations included those for burial of human bodies and, in some countries, for water supply. The extent and depth of mines (for resources) and excavations (e.g. for underground transport systems) expanded rapidly from the Industrial Revolution, with further acceleration from the mid-20th century and expansion from terrestrial to marine settings – as in the expansion of offshore

oil exploration and production. The pattern hence mimics (and was instrumental in driving) the stages of geologically significant human modification of the Earth (cf. Waters et al., 2014). In a deep-time perspective, long after humans have Alectinib purchase disappeared, sporadically distributed and exposed deep mine/boreholes traces in the strata of the far future might lie several kilometres stratigraphically below a stratified Anthropocene palaeosurface, and it would take fortuitously good exposure to reveal their continuity. Their precise chronology might only be preserved via cross-cutting relationships (that may also need fortuitous preservation). However, in terms of the overall place of these phenomena in Earth history, anthroturbation traces,

of course, would not appear above stratified Anthropocene deposits. Modification of the Earth’s underground rock structure is not in itself normally something that would be considered as an environmental perturbation (unless it

is accompanied by significant surface subsidence), given that this modification takes place below the level of the surface biosphere, within heptaminol ‘inert’ rock. However, this form of anthropogenic modification arguably has the highest long-term preservation potential of anything made by humans, often approaching 100% (until the trace eventually reaches the surface). In affecting rock structure and therefore the Earth’s geology, it is a component of the Anthropocene concept. As with a number of other aspects of the proposed Anthropocene, this is a geologically novel phenomenon, with no very close analogues in the history of our planet. Of the analogues that may be put forward – igneous or large-scale sedimentary intrusions, for instance, or spontaneous underground combustion of coal seams – none are biological in origin, for no other species has penetrated to such depths in the crust, or made such extensive deep subterranean changes. It is therefore another feature that separates the Anthropocene clearly from preceding periods, and is further evidence of a ‘step change’ in Earth history (cf. Williams et al., 2014 and Zalasiewicz et al., 2014).