49-56 However, theophylline and caffeine, like most, drugs, are metabolized by multiple enzymes.57 Thus, studies using a “probe” drug to assess the activity of the CYP

isoenzyme may yield spurious results due to the multiplicity of enzymatic pathways that may be involved in a drug’s metabolism. Further, while there is indirect evidence for an effect of gonadal steroids on CYP1 A2 activity (because the levels of caffeine and theophylline decrease during pregnancy Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and with oral contraceptive [OC] use49,51,52 [but. not. during the menstrual cycle]),58 smoking has a more prominent effect.,49,51,53,59-62 with possible greater induction of activity in males than females.54 Thus, sex effects may be conveyed through modulation of other influences on enzyme activity (eg, smoking or aging), as well as through direct effects of gonadal steroids. Ethnicity, in particular, plays a key role in explaining the large interindividual variation in drug metabolism, because polymorphisms in the genes for the CYP isoenzymes Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are expressed in varying frequencies among different, ethnic populations. These polymorphic variants have been used to define three types of drug metabolizers: (i) extensive metabolizers (EM), who are homozygous or heterozygous for the wild-type gene and make

up the majority of the population; (ii) poor metabolizers (PMs), who are homozygous for the mutant gene and have lower Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical CYP enzyme expression; and (iii) ultrarapid Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical metabolizers (LJM), who have multiple copies of the wild-type gene and have significantly increased CYP enzyme expression.63 CYP2D6 has an additional subgroup, the intermediate metabolizers (I’M), who have more activity than the PMs, but. less than the EMs.64 Besides sex differences in the activity of the CYP isoenzymes, the polymorphic variants may themselves display sex-dependent differences in prevalence. CYP3A4. This, the most, abundant hepatic CYP450 enzyme and metabolizer of 50% of all drugs, shows increased activity in women Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for some but. not all substrates (see reference 63). On average, women have 20% to 50% greater CYP3A4 activity than men.63,65 Additionally, age and sex interact,

so that the declining activity of CYP3 A4 with age is seen more in men than in women.65 This effect, combined with increased fat proportion in aging women and decreased oxidation in aging men,34 suggests that older women should have markedly lower Batimastat benzodiazepine levels than older men at a comparable dose (all else being equal, which, of course, it is not, eg, glomerular filtration rate [GFR] is proportional to weight, and men are larger than women, thus increasing clearance in men).34 All of the aforementioned confounds (multiple enzymatic selleck chemical Y-27632 processing of probe drugs, ethniceffects, and age) plus small sample sizes and concurrent disease apply to inferences about the effects of sex on CYP3A4 activity When examining the possible influence of sex on CY.