, 2012b and Teimouri et Selleck IBET762 al., 2006). As such further disruption of glucose homeostasis in diabetic models of laboratory animals exposed to organophosphate insecticides has been associated with enhanced lipid peroxidation and decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes (Begum and Rajini, 2011). Oxidative stress has also been reported to be involved in nephrotoxicity of some pesticides, including diazinon, acephate, and paraquat (Poovala et al., 1998, Shah and Iqbal, 2010 and Tomita et al., 2006). As the

first compartment of secretary pathway, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is specialized for synthesis, folding, and delivery of proteins in addition to its fundamental role in the

storage of calcium. Any disturbance in calcium homeostasis, redox regulation, and energy supply can cause perturbation of ER normal function resulting in accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in this organelle, a situation which is called ER stress. Unfolded proteins occupy ER resident chaperones leading to release of transmembrane ER protein kinases which activate a series of phosphorylation cascades resulting in increased expression of genes, which act as molecular chaperones to reestablish ER folding capacity or promote ER associated degradation (ERAD) to remove Selleck Apitolisib misfolded proteins. This process is called unfolded protein response (UPR) aiming to adjust to the changing environment. In case if adaptation fails, ER stress results in expression of genes involved in programmed cell death pathways (Xu et al., 2005). Recent discoveries indicate that prolonged ER stress and UPR play an important role in the development of several human diseases particularly chronic ones, including

Clomifene insulin resistance, diabetes (Back et al., 2012, Kim et al., 2012 and Scheuner and Kaufman, 2008), Parkinson, Alzheimer, ALS (Doyle et al., 2011, Lindholm et al., 2006 and Nassif et al., 2010), tumor formation and progression (Koumenis, 2006 and Lee and Hendershot, 2006), atherosclerosis, cardiomyopathy, chronic kidney diseases and renal failure (Dickhout et al., 2011 and Tabas, 2010). On the other hand, ER stress and related pathways have been reported to be involved in cytotoxicity of some pesticides. Paraquat, a bipyridyl herbicide, which is suspected to increase the risk of Parkinson disease following chronic exposures, has been reported to induce ER stress and trigger dopaminergic cell death by enhanced cleavage of a small ER co-chaperone protein, p23, and inhibition of ERAD (Chinta et al., 2008).