001) and there was no significant difference in MIC values of Pictilisib solubility dmso control and PA-expressing strains. Error bars in panels A and B indicate

standard deviation based on 5 biological replicates. Cytoplasmic granulation is one of the first recognizable cytological signs of heterokaryon incompatibility in filamentous fungi [18–20]. Consistent with this, phase contrast micrographs of PA-expressing yeast cells grown in YPD had significantly darker cytoplasmic granules when compared to the control strain (Figure 3A). We note that the contents of such granules are not known in yeast, nor are they known in N. crassa[18]. As incompatibility reactions progress in filamentous fungi, cytoplasmic vacuolization and ruptured MLN8237 concentration vacuoles LY2874455 clinical trial are observed, which can lead to cytoplasmic acidification [18, 21]. We saw a similar phenotype in yeast using neutral red, a pH indicator dye that stains yeast

vacuoles red [22], in that a significantly larger proportion of PA-expressing cells stained red throughout the cytoplasm than did control cells when growth was on YPD (Figure 3B). Overall, this staining pattern of the PA-expressing strain was indistinguishable from that of YPL234CΔ, a mutant yeast strain that lacks the vacuolar ATPase V0 domain subunit c’ and thus cannot effectively sequester H+ in the vacuole [23]. Therefore, neutral red staining indicated that, similar to the vATPase mutant strain, vacuolar membrane function is compromised in PA-expressing yeast strains. We also found that PA-expressing yeast grown on YPD had a significantly Methamphetamine lower growth rate compared to the control strain (Figure 3C), a key characteristic of un-24 incompatibility in N. crassa[15]. Interestingly, these aberrant yeast

phenotypes were not evident when the PA construct was expressed at high levels on YPRaf/Gal (Additional file 1: Figure S2), nor were they observed when the OR constructs were expressed at low- or high-levels (Additional file 1: Figure S1C and D), suggesting that OR constructs did not confer incompatibility in yeast. In summary, low-level expression of PA in yeast caused three hallmark characteristics of fungal incompatibility: cytoplasmic granulation, perturbation of vacuole integrity, and growth inhibition. Figure 3 Expression of the PA incompatibility domain at low-levels in yeast results in aberrant phenotypes. A) Phase contrast microscopy revealed that PA-expressing yeast exhibit significantly more cells having a granulated cytoplasm compared to control strain (P = 0.007). Cytoplasmic granulation is a key feature of heterokaryon incompatibility in filamentous fungi. B) Significantly more PA-expressing yeast cells exhibit cytoplasmic acidification in comparison to control strain (P = 0.015) based on neutral red staining. The frequency of PA-expressing cells that exhibited an acidified cytoplasm did not differ from that of the vATPase-defective strain, YPL234C.