3, 4 On the other hand, inflammatory cells, such as circulating monocytes, were often shown to contribute to the progression of liver fibrosis. Monocyte-derived macrophages purified from carbon tetrachloride-treated OTX015 in vivo animals, or CD14+CD16+ monocytes from patients with chronic liver disease

can directly activate stellate cells.5, 6 Therefore, further studies are needed to delineate the relationship between hepatocytes, inflammatory cells, and HSCs during liver fibrogenesis. A potential key factor of hepatocyte-driven liver fibrosis could be the activation of the proinflammatory nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway in hepatocytes. The family of NF-κB transcription factors belongs to the key regulators of inflammatory processes.7 Dysregulation of NF-κB can lead to constitutive overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines, which is associated with a number of chronic inflammatory disorders.8 Constitutive activation of NF-κB is also observed in patients with liver diseases such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or hepatocellular carcinoma.9 However, although previous work has found that active NF-κB is associated with fibrosis,10 the exact contribution to disease development and progression remained enigmatic. In addition, the question whether

activation of NF-κB is protective or disease aggravating is unresolved. Panobinostat research buy In resting cells, NF-κB is localized in the cytoplasm associated with inhibitory proteins (IκB).

A variety of stimuli can activate the NF-κB signaling pathway. This leads to phosphorylation, polyubiquitination, and proteasome-dependent degradation of IκB proteins. Liberated NF-κB dimers can translocate into the nucleus and regulate NF-κB-dependent gene expression.11 The IκB kinase (IKK) complex is the master regulator for activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway.12 The kinase complex comprises the two catalytic subunits, IKK1 (IKKα) and IKK2 (IKKβ), and the regulatory subunit 上海皓元 NEMO (IKKγ), which mediates NF-κB activation in response to a number of different stimuli by phosphorylating IκB proteins.12 Genetic studies revealed that NF-κB p65 (RelA), IKK2, or NEMO have a critical role in protecting hepatocytes during an embryonic phase.13 However, in the adult liver NF-κB inhibition in hepatocytes by conditional knockout of Rela or Ikbkb (encoding IKK2), or overexpression of IκBα super-repressor has no spontaneous liver phenotype.14-16 In this study we show that hepatic activation of NF-κB signaling is sufficient to induce liver fibrosis. Activation of the NF-κB pathway leads to development of chronic inflammation, which precedes the development of liver fibrosis. Continuous NF-κB activation is necessary for the maintenance of chronic inflammation, because turning off the IKK2 overexpression leads to a rapid decrease in multiple inflammatory cytokines and later on in a decrease in activated HSCs.